Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome
Encyclopedia
Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome (BWS) is an overgrowth disorder usually (but not always) present at birth characterized by an increased risk of childhood cancer
and certain congenital features. Originally, Dr. Hans-Rudolf Wiedemann coined the term exomphalos-macroglossia
-gigantism
(EMG) syndrome to describe the combination of congenital abdominal wall defects as hernia
- exomphalos, large tongue - macroglossia, and large body (and/or long limbs) - gigantism. Over time, this constellation was renamed Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome following the autoptical observations of Prof. Bekcwith, who observed also severe increase in the size of the adrenal glands in some of these patients. Five common features used to define BWS are: macroglossia, macrosomia - (birth weight and length >90th percentile), midline abdominal wall defects (omphalocele
, umbilical hernia
, diastasis recti), ear creases or ear pits, and neonatal hypoglycemia
(low blood sugar after birth).
, midface hypoplasia
, hemihypertrophy
, genitourinary anomalies (enlarged kidneys), cardiac anomalies, musculoskeletal abnormalities, and hearing loss. Also, some premature newborns with BWS do not have macroglossia until closer to their anticipated delivery date.
Given the variation among individuals with BWS and the lack of a simple diagnostic test, identifying BWS can be difficult. In an attempt to standardize the classification of BWS, DeBaun et al. have defined a child as having BWS if the child has been diagnosed by a physician as having BWS and if the child has at least two of the five common features associated with BWS (macroglossia, macrosomia, midline abdominal wall defects, ear creases/ear pits, neonatal hypoglycemia). Another definition presented by Elliot et al. includes the presence of either three major features (anterior abdominal wall defect, macroglossia, or prepostnatal overgrowth) or two major plus three minor findings (ear pits, nevus flammeus, neonatal hypoglycemia, nephromegaly, or hemihyperplasia).
While most children with BWS do not develop cancer, children with BWS do have a significantly increased risk of cancer. Children with BWS are most at risk during early childhood and should receive cancer screening during this time.
In general, children with BWS do very well and grow up to become adults of normal size and intelligence, usually without the syndromic features of their childhood.
Children conceived through In vitro fertilization have a three to fourfold increased chance of developing Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome. It is thought that this is due to genes being turned on or off by the IVF procedures.
differently depending on whether they came from the mother (maternal copy) or father (paternal copy). Most genes are not imprinted and both the maternal and paternal copies of the gene are actively expressed. In imprinted genes, only one parental copy is active; the other copy is silent. In some imprinted genes only the maternal copy is active, while in other cases only the paternal copy is active.
BWS can be caused by a range of different genetic defects. Over five distinct errors involving 11p15 have been identified in different BWS patients. Some patients have maternal chromosomal rearrangements of 11p15, meaning that there is a disruption of the chromosome in this region. Other patients have paternal uniparental disomy (UPD) of chromosome 11, meaning that the maternal copy of this chromosome is replaced with an extra paternal copy. Many other patients have abnormal DNA methylation
in different areas of 11p15, meaning that normal epigenetic marks that regulate imprinted genes in this region are altered. A few other patients have a single gene located within 11p15.
Additionally, even after extensive molecular testing, the specific defect causing BWS in an affected individual may remain unknown. In about 1/3 of BWS patients, the genetic or epigenetic mutation
is unknown. This fact demonstrates why BWS remains a clinical diagnosis because physicians cannot identify and test for all the genetic causes of BWS. The clinical definition used for BWS is limited because no standard diagnostic criteria exist that have been independently verified with patients who have either genetic or epigenetic mutations. When molecular analyses were completed in children who met a research criteria for BWS, only 7 of 10 children had genetic or epigenetic mutations. The absence of a mutation in a child with clinical findings suggestive of BWS should not preclude a diagnosis of BWS.
Given that the genetics of BWS are complex, a child with BWS should be under the medical care of a geneticist or an expert in the management of BWS.
Genes involved are IGF2, p57
, CDKN1C
, H19
, and LIT1
.
Neonatal hypoglycemia, low blood glucose in the first month of life, occurs in about half of children with BWS. Most of these hypoglycemic newborns are asymptomatic and have a normal blood glucose level within days. However, untreated persistent hypoglycemia can lead to permanent brain damage. Hypoglycemia in newborns with BWS should be managed according to standard protocols for treating neonatal hypoglycemia. Usually this hypoglycemia can easily be treated with more frequent feedings or medical doses of glucose. Rarely (<5%) children with BWS will continue to have hypoglycemia after the neonatal period and require more intensive treatment. Such children may require tube feedings, oral hyperglycemic medicines, or a partial pancreatectomy.
Macroglossia, a large tongue, is a very common (>90%) and prominent feature of BWS. Infants with BWS and macroglossia typically cannot fully close their mouth in front of their large tongue, causing it to protrude out. Macroglossia in BWS becomes less noticeable with age and often requires no treatment; but it does cause problems for some children with BWS. In severe cases, macroglossia can cause respiratory, feeding, and speech difficulties. Children with BWS and significant macroglossia should be evaluated by a craniofacial team.
The best time to perform surgery for a large tongue is not known. Some surgeons recommend performing the surgery between 3 and 6 months of age. Surgery for macroglossia involves removing a small part of the tongue so that it fits within the mouth to allow for proper jaw and tooth development.
Nevus flammeus (port-wine stain) is a flat, red birthmark caused by a capillary (small blood vessel) malformation. Children with BWS often have nevus flammeus on their forehead or the back of their neck. Nevus flammeus is benign and commonly does not require any treatment.
Hemihypertrophy (hemihyperplasia) is an abnormal asymmetry between the left and right sides of the body occurring when one part of the body grows faster than normal. Children with BWS and hemihypertrophy can have an isolated asymmetry of one body part, or they can have a difference affecting the entire one side of the body. Individuals who do not have BWS can also have hemihypertrophy. Isolated hemihypertrophy is associated with a higher risk for cancer. The types of cancer and age of the cancers are similar to children with BWS. As a result children with hemihypertrophy should follow the general cancer screening protocol for BWS.
Hemihypertrophy can also cause various orthopedic problems, so children with significant limb hemihyperplasia should be evaluated and followed by an orthopedic surgeon.
Finally hemihyperplasia affecting the face can sometimes cause significant cosmetic concerns that may be addressed by a cranial facial team.
(nephroblastoma) and hepatoblastoma
. Individuals with BWS appear to only be at increased risk for cancer during childhood (especially before age four) and do not have an increased risk of developing cancer in adulthood. If 100 children with BWS were followed from birth until age ten, about 10 cases of cancer would be expected in the group before age four, and about 1 case of cancer in the group would be expected between age four and ten.
In addition to Wilms tumor and hepatoblastoma, children with BWS are also at increased risk of developing adrenal cortical carcinoma, neuroblastoma
, and rhabdomyosarcoma
.
Both Wilms tumor and hepatoblastoma can usually be cured if diagnosed early. Early diagnosis allows physicians to treat the cancer when it is at an early stage. In addition, there is less toxic treatment. Given the importance of early diagnosis, all children with BWS should receive cancer screening.
An abdominal ultrasound to every 3 months until at least eight years of age is recommended and a blood test to measure alpha-fetoprotein
(AFP) every 6 weeks until at least four years of age. Families and physicians should determine screening schedules for specific patients, especially the age at which to discontinue screening, based upon their own evaluation of the risk-benefit ratio.
Children with BWS for the most part had no significant delays when compared to their siblings. However, some children with BWS do have speech problems that could be related to macroglossia or hearing loss.
Advances in treating neonatal complications and premature infants in the last twenty years have significantly improved the true infant mortality rate associated with BWS. In a review of pregnancies that resulted in 304 children with BWS, not a single neonatal death was reported. This is compared to a previously reported mortality rate of 20%. The data from the former study was derived from a BWS registry, a database that may be slightly biased towards involving living children; however, death was not an exclusion criterion to join the registry. This suggests that while infants with BWS are likely to have a higher than normal infant mortality risk, it may not be as high as 20%.
(ART) is a general term referring to methods used to achieve pregnancy by artificial or partially artificial means. According to the CDC, in general, ART procedures involve surgically removing eggs from a woman's ovaries, combining them with sperm in the laboratory, and returning them to the woman's body or donating them to another woman. ART has been associated with epigenetic syndromes, specifically BWS and Angelman syndrome
. Three groups have shown an increased rate of ART conception in children with BWS. A retrospective case control study from Australia found a 1 in 4000 risk of BWS in their in-vitro population, several times higher than the general population. Another study found that children conceived by in vitro fertilisation (IVF) are three to four times more likely to develop the condition. No specific type of ART has been more closely associated with BWS. The mechanism in which ART produces this effect is still under investigation.
Cancer
Cancer , known medically as a malignant neoplasm, is a large group of different diseases, all involving unregulated cell growth. In cancer, cells divide and grow uncontrollably, forming malignant tumors, and invade nearby parts of the body. The cancer may also spread to more distant parts of the...
and certain congenital features. Originally, Dr. Hans-Rudolf Wiedemann coined the term exomphalos-macroglossia
Macroglossia
Macroglossia is the medical term for unusual enlargement of the tongue. Severe enlargement of the tongue can cause cosmetic and functional difficulties including in speaking, eating, swallowing and sleeping.- Amyloid Disorders :...
-gigantism
Gigantism
Gigantism, also known as giantism , is a condition characterized by excessive growth and height significantly above average...
(EMG) syndrome to describe the combination of congenital abdominal wall defects as hernia
Umbilical hernia
Congenital umbilical hernia is a congenital malformation, common in infants of African descent. Among adults, it is three times more common in women than in men; among children, the ratio is roughly equal...
- exomphalos, large tongue - macroglossia, and large body (and/or long limbs) - gigantism. Over time, this constellation was renamed Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome following the autoptical observations of Prof. Bekcwith, who observed also severe increase in the size of the adrenal glands in some of these patients. Five common features used to define BWS are: macroglossia, macrosomia - (birth weight and length >90th percentile), midline abdominal wall defects (omphalocele
Omphalocele
An omphalocele is a type of abdominal wall defect in which the intestines, liver, and occasionally other organs remain outside of the abdomen in a sac because of a defect in the development of the muscles of the abdominal wall.-Presentation:The sac, which is formed from an outpouching of...
, umbilical hernia
Umbilical hernia
Congenital umbilical hernia is a congenital malformation, common in infants of African descent. Among adults, it is three times more common in women than in men; among children, the ratio is roughly equal...
, diastasis recti), ear creases or ear pits, and neonatal hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia
Hypoglycemia or hypoglycæmia is the medical term for a state produced by a lower than normal level of blood glucose. The term literally means "under-sweet blood"...
(low blood sugar after birth).
Presentation
Most children with BWS do not have all of these five features. In addition, some children with BWS have other findings including: nevus flammeus, prominent occiputOcciput
The occiput is the anatomical term for the posterior portion of the head, in insects the posterior part of those head capsule.-Clinical significance:Trauma to the occiput can cause a basilar skull fracture....
, midface hypoplasia
Hypoplasia
Hypoplasia is underdevelopment or incomplete development of a tissue or organ. Although the term is not always used precisely, it properly refers to an inadequate or below-normal number of cells. Hypoplasia is similar to aplasia, but less severe. It is technically not the opposite of hyperplasia...
, hemihypertrophy
Hemihypertrophy
Hemihypertrophy is a condition in which one side of the body or a part of one side is larger than the other. Children with hemihypertrophy have an increased risk of developing certain types of cancer, including Wilms tumor and liver cancer...
, genitourinary anomalies (enlarged kidneys), cardiac anomalies, musculoskeletal abnormalities, and hearing loss. Also, some premature newborns with BWS do not have macroglossia until closer to their anticipated delivery date.
Given the variation among individuals with BWS and the lack of a simple diagnostic test, identifying BWS can be difficult. In an attempt to standardize the classification of BWS, DeBaun et al. have defined a child as having BWS if the child has been diagnosed by a physician as having BWS and if the child has at least two of the five common features associated with BWS (macroglossia, macrosomia, midline abdominal wall defects, ear creases/ear pits, neonatal hypoglycemia). Another definition presented by Elliot et al. includes the presence of either three major features (anterior abdominal wall defect, macroglossia, or prepostnatal overgrowth) or two major plus three minor findings (ear pits, nevus flammeus, neonatal hypoglycemia, nephromegaly, or hemihyperplasia).
While most children with BWS do not develop cancer, children with BWS do have a significantly increased risk of cancer. Children with BWS are most at risk during early childhood and should receive cancer screening during this time.
In general, children with BWS do very well and grow up to become adults of normal size and intelligence, usually without the syndromic features of their childhood.
Occurrence
Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome has an estimated incidence of one in 13,700; about 300 children with BWS are born each year in the United States. The exact incidence of BWS is unknown because of the marked variability in the syndome's presentation and difficulties with diagnosis. The number of reported infants born with BWS is most likely low because many are born with BWS, but have clinical features that are less prominent and therefore missed. BWS has been documented in a variety of ethnic groups and occurs equally in males and females.Children conceived through In vitro fertilization have a three to fourfold increased chance of developing Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome. It is thought that this is due to genes being turned on or off by the IVF procedures.
Genetics
Most (>85%) cases of BWS are sporadic, meaning that usually no one else in that family has BWS and parents of an affected child are not at increased risk of having other children with BWS. However, some (<15%) cases of BWS are familial, meaning that someone else in that family may also have BWS and parents of an affected child may be at increased risk of having other children with BWS. BWS has been shown to specifically involve problems with a defined region on the short arm of chromosome 11 referred to as 11p15. This region contains genes that are imprinted. Imprinted genes are unique in that they are expressedGene expression
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA , transfer RNA or small nuclear RNA genes, the product is a functional RNA...
differently depending on whether they came from the mother (maternal copy) or father (paternal copy). Most genes are not imprinted and both the maternal and paternal copies of the gene are actively expressed. In imprinted genes, only one parental copy is active; the other copy is silent. In some imprinted genes only the maternal copy is active, while in other cases only the paternal copy is active.
BWS can be caused by a range of different genetic defects. Over five distinct errors involving 11p15 have been identified in different BWS patients. Some patients have maternal chromosomal rearrangements of 11p15, meaning that there is a disruption of the chromosome in this region. Other patients have paternal uniparental disomy (UPD) of chromosome 11, meaning that the maternal copy of this chromosome is replaced with an extra paternal copy. Many other patients have abnormal DNA methylation
DNA methylation
DNA methylation is a biochemical process that is important for normal development in higher organisms. It involves the addition of a methyl group to the 5 position of the cytosine pyrimidine ring or the number 6 nitrogen of the adenine purine ring...
in different areas of 11p15, meaning that normal epigenetic marks that regulate imprinted genes in this region are altered. A few other patients have a single gene located within 11p15.
Additionally, even after extensive molecular testing, the specific defect causing BWS in an affected individual may remain unknown. In about 1/3 of BWS patients, the genetic or epigenetic mutation
Mutation
In molecular biology and genetics, mutations are changes in a genomic sequence: the DNA sequence of a cell's genome or the DNA or RNA sequence of a virus. They can be defined as sudden and spontaneous changes in the cell. Mutations are caused by radiation, viruses, transposons and mutagenic...
is unknown. This fact demonstrates why BWS remains a clinical diagnosis because physicians cannot identify and test for all the genetic causes of BWS. The clinical definition used for BWS is limited because no standard diagnostic criteria exist that have been independently verified with patients who have either genetic or epigenetic mutations. When molecular analyses were completed in children who met a research criteria for BWS, only 7 of 10 children had genetic or epigenetic mutations. The absence of a mutation in a child with clinical findings suggestive of BWS should not preclude a diagnosis of BWS.
Given that the genetics of BWS are complex, a child with BWS should be under the medical care of a geneticist or an expert in the management of BWS.
Genes involved are IGF2, p57
Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1C
Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1C , also known as CDKN1C, is protein which in humans is encoded by the CDKN1C imprinted gene.- Function :...
, CDKN1C
Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1C
Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1C , also known as CDKN1C, is protein which in humans is encoded by the CDKN1C imprinted gene.- Function :...
, H19
H19 (gene)
H19 is a gene for a long noncoding RNA, found in humans and elsewhere. This gene seems to have a role in some forms of cancer.The H19 gene is also known as ASM, ASM1 and BWS, among others....
, and LIT1
KCNQ1OT1
KCNQ1 overlapping transcript 1, also known as KCNQ1OT1, is a long non-coding RNA gene found in the KCNQ1 locus. This locus consists of 8-10 protein-coding genes, specifically expressed from the maternal allele , and the paternally expressed non-coding RNA gene KCNQ1OT1. KCNQ1OT1 is found as a 91...
.
Management
Abdominal wall defects are common in newborns with BWS and may require surgical treatment. These defects can range in severity from omphalocele (most serious) to umbilical hernia and diastasis recti (least serious). An omphalocele is a congenital malformation in which a newborn's intestines, and sometimes other abdominal organs, protrude out of the abdomen through the umbilicus. Newborns with an omphalocele typically require surgery to place the abdominal contents back into the abdomen in order to prevent serious infection or shock. An umbilical hernia is also a defect in which abdominal contents come through weak abdominal wall muscle at the umbilicus. In general, newborns with umbilical hernias do not require treatment because often these hernias spontaneously close by age four. If, after this time, a hernia is still present, surgery may be recommended. Diastasis recti is a separation of the left and right sides of the rectus abdominis muscle that are normally joined together. Children with diastasis recti usually require no treatment because the condition resolves as the child grows.Neonatal hypoglycemia, low blood glucose in the first month of life, occurs in about half of children with BWS. Most of these hypoglycemic newborns are asymptomatic and have a normal blood glucose level within days. However, untreated persistent hypoglycemia can lead to permanent brain damage. Hypoglycemia in newborns with BWS should be managed according to standard protocols for treating neonatal hypoglycemia. Usually this hypoglycemia can easily be treated with more frequent feedings or medical doses of glucose. Rarely (<5%) children with BWS will continue to have hypoglycemia after the neonatal period and require more intensive treatment. Such children may require tube feedings, oral hyperglycemic medicines, or a partial pancreatectomy.
Macroglossia, a large tongue, is a very common (>90%) and prominent feature of BWS. Infants with BWS and macroglossia typically cannot fully close their mouth in front of their large tongue, causing it to protrude out. Macroglossia in BWS becomes less noticeable with age and often requires no treatment; but it does cause problems for some children with BWS. In severe cases, macroglossia can cause respiratory, feeding, and speech difficulties. Children with BWS and significant macroglossia should be evaluated by a craniofacial team.
The best time to perform surgery for a large tongue is not known. Some surgeons recommend performing the surgery between 3 and 6 months of age. Surgery for macroglossia involves removing a small part of the tongue so that it fits within the mouth to allow for proper jaw and tooth development.
Nevus flammeus (port-wine stain) is a flat, red birthmark caused by a capillary (small blood vessel) malformation. Children with BWS often have nevus flammeus on their forehead or the back of their neck. Nevus flammeus is benign and commonly does not require any treatment.
Hemihypertrophy (hemihyperplasia) is an abnormal asymmetry between the left and right sides of the body occurring when one part of the body grows faster than normal. Children with BWS and hemihypertrophy can have an isolated asymmetry of one body part, or they can have a difference affecting the entire one side of the body. Individuals who do not have BWS can also have hemihypertrophy. Isolated hemihypertrophy is associated with a higher risk for cancer. The types of cancer and age of the cancers are similar to children with BWS. As a result children with hemihypertrophy should follow the general cancer screening protocol for BWS.
Hemihypertrophy can also cause various orthopedic problems, so children with significant limb hemihyperplasia should be evaluated and followed by an orthopedic surgeon.
Finally hemihyperplasia affecting the face can sometimes cause significant cosmetic concerns that may be addressed by a cranial facial team.
Neoplasms
Most children (>80%) with BWS do not develop cancer; however, children with BWS are much more likely (~600 times more) than other children to develop certain childhood cancers, particularly Wilms' tumorWilms' tumor
Wilms' tumor or nephroblastoma is cancer of the kidneys that typically occurs in children, rarely in adults.Its common name is an eponym, referring to Dr. Max Wilms, the German surgeon who first described this kind of tumor....
(nephroblastoma) and hepatoblastoma
Hepatoblastoma
Hepatoblastoma is an uncommon malignant liver neoplasm occurring in infants and children and composed of tissue resembling fetal or mature liver cells or bile ducts. Affecting 1 in 1.5 million. They are usually present with an abdominal mass...
. Individuals with BWS appear to only be at increased risk for cancer during childhood (especially before age four) and do not have an increased risk of developing cancer in adulthood. If 100 children with BWS were followed from birth until age ten, about 10 cases of cancer would be expected in the group before age four, and about 1 case of cancer in the group would be expected between age four and ten.
In addition to Wilms tumor and hepatoblastoma, children with BWS are also at increased risk of developing adrenal cortical carcinoma, neuroblastoma
Neuroblastoma
Neuroblastoma is the most common extracranial solid cancer in childhood and the most common cancer in infancy, with an annual incidence of about 650 cases per year in the US , and 100 cases per year in the UK . Close to 50 percent of neuroblastoma cases occur in children younger than two years old...
, and rhabdomyosarcoma
Rhabdomyosarcoma
A rhabdomyosarcoma is a type of cancer, specifically a sarcoma , in which the cancer cells are thought to arise from skeletal muscle progenitors. It can also be found attached to muscle tissue, wrapped around intestines, or in any anatomic location...
.
Both Wilms tumor and hepatoblastoma can usually be cured if diagnosed early. Early diagnosis allows physicians to treat the cancer when it is at an early stage. In addition, there is less toxic treatment. Given the importance of early diagnosis, all children with BWS should receive cancer screening.
An abdominal ultrasound to every 3 months until at least eight years of age is recommended and a blood test to measure alpha-fetoprotein
Alpha-fetoprotein
Alpha-fetoprotein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the AFP gene....
(AFP) every 6 weeks until at least four years of age. Families and physicians should determine screening schedules for specific patients, especially the age at which to discontinue screening, based upon their own evaluation of the risk-benefit ratio.
Prognosis
In general, the prognosis is very good. Children with BWS usually do very well and grow up to become the heights expected based on their parents heights. While children with BWS are at increased risk of childhood cancer, most children with BWS do not develop cancer and the vast majority of children who do develop cancer can be treated successfully.Children with BWS for the most part had no significant delays when compared to their siblings. However, some children with BWS do have speech problems that could be related to macroglossia or hearing loss.
Advances in treating neonatal complications and premature infants in the last twenty years have significantly improved the true infant mortality rate associated with BWS. In a review of pregnancies that resulted in 304 children with BWS, not a single neonatal death was reported. This is compared to a previously reported mortality rate of 20%. The data from the former study was derived from a BWS registry, a database that may be slightly biased towards involving living children; however, death was not an exclusion criterion to join the registry. This suggests that while infants with BWS are likely to have a higher than normal infant mortality risk, it may not be as high as 20%.
Assisted reproductive technology
Assisted reproductive technologyAssisted reproductive technology
Assisted reproductive technology is a general term referring to methods used to achieve pregnancy by artificial or partially artificial means. It is reproductive technology used primarily in infertility treatments. Some forms of ART are also used in fertile couples for genetic reasons...
(ART) is a general term referring to methods used to achieve pregnancy by artificial or partially artificial means. According to the CDC, in general, ART procedures involve surgically removing eggs from a woman's ovaries, combining them with sperm in the laboratory, and returning them to the woman's body or donating them to another woman. ART has been associated with epigenetic syndromes, specifically BWS and Angelman syndrome
Angelman syndrome
Angelman syndrome is a neuro-genetic disorder characterized by intellectual and developmental delay, sleep disturbance, seizures, jerky movements , frequent laughter or smiling, and usually a happy demeanor....
. Three groups have shown an increased rate of ART conception in children with BWS. A retrospective case control study from Australia found a 1 in 4000 risk of BWS in their in-vitro population, several times higher than the general population. Another study found that children conceived by in vitro fertilisation (IVF) are three to four times more likely to develop the condition. No specific type of ART has been more closely associated with BWS. The mechanism in which ART produces this effect is still under investigation.
History
In the 1960s, Dr. J. Bruce Beckwith, an American pathologist and Dr. Hans-Rudolf Wiedemann, a German pediatrician, independently reported cases of a proposed new syndrome. Originally termed EMG syndrome (for exomphalos, macroglossia, and gigantism), this syndrome over time became known as Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome or Wiedemann Beckwith syndrome.External links
- Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome Support Network UK & Europe - A UK based support group for families and individuals living with the syndrome, which also seeks to raise awareness of the condition.
- Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome - Provides an overview of BWS as well as information on genetics and management of this disease. This site is also home to the International BWS Registry.
- Cancer.Net: Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome
- GeneReview/UW/NIH entry on Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome