Battle of Towton
Encyclopedia
In 1461, England was in the sixth year of the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars between the Houses of York
and Lancaster
over the English throne. The Lancastrians backed the reigning King of England, Henry VI
, an indecisive man who suffered bouts of madness. The leader of the Yorkists was initially Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York
, who believed Henry was leading the country to ruin by overly favouring incompetent Lancastrian members of the court. Fuelled by rivalries between influential supporters of both houses, York's attempts to remove the favoured Lancastrian courtiers from power escalated into a full-blown conflict. After capturing Henry at the Battle of Northampton
in 1460, the duke, who was of royal blood, issued his own claim to the throne. Even York's closest supporters among the nobility were reluctant to usurp an established royal lineage; instead, the nobles passed by a majority vote the Act of Accord
, which ruled that the duke and his heirs would succeed the throne on Henry's death.
The Queen of England, Margaret of Anjou
, refused to accept an arrangement that deprived her son—Edward of Westminster—of his birthright. She had fled to Scotland after the Yorkist victory at Northampton; there she began raising an army, promising her followers the freedom to plunder on the march south through England. Her Lancastrian supporters also mustered in the north of England, preparing for her arrival. York marched with his army to meet this threat, but he was lured into a trap at Wakefield
and killed. The duke and his second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland
, were decapitated by the Lancastrians and their heads were impaled on spikes atop the Micklegate Bar, a gatehouse of the city of York. The leadership of the House of York passed onto the duke's heir, Edward
.
The victors of Wakefield were joined by Margaret's army and they marched south, plundering settlements in their wake. They liberated Henry after defeating the Yorkist army of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick
, in the Second Battle of St Albans
, and continued pillaging on their way to London. As a result, the city of London refused to open its gates to Henry and Margaret for fear of being looted. The Lancastrian army was short on supplies and had no adequate means to replenish them. When Margaret learned that Edward of York and his army had won the Battle of Mortimer's Cross
in Herefordshire and were marching towards London, she withdrew the Lancastrians to the city of York. Warwick and the remnants of his army marched from St Albans to join Edward's men and the Yorkists were welcomed into London. Having lost custody of Henry, the Yorkists needed a justification to continue taking up arms against the king and his Lancastrian followers. On 4 March, Warwick proclaimed the young Yorkist leader as King Edward IV. The proclamation gained greater acceptance than Richard of York's earlier claim, as several nobles previously opposed to letting Edward's father ascend the throne viewed the Lancastrian actions as a betrayal of the legally established Accord.
The country now had two kings—a situation that could not be allowed to persist, especially if Edward was to be formally crowned. Edward offered amnesty to any Lancastrian supporter who renounced Henry. The move was intended to win over the commoners; his offer did not extend to wealthy Lancastrians (mostly the nobles). The young king summoned and ordered his followers to march towards York to take back his family's city and to formally depose Henry through force of arms. The Yorkist army moved along three routes. Warwick's uncle, Lord Fauconberg
, led a group to clear the way to York for the main body, which was led by Edward. John de Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk
, was sent east to raise forces and rejoin Edward before the battle. Warwick's group moved to the west of the main body, through the English Midlands, gathering men as they went. On 28 March, the leading elements of the Yorkist army came upon the remains of the crossing in Ferrybridge
that spanned the River Aire
. They were rebuilding the bridge when they were attacked and routed
by a small band of Lancastrians, consisting of approximately 500 men led by John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford
.
Learning of the encounter, Edward led the Yorkist main army to the bridge and was forced into a gruelling battle; although the Yorkists were superior in numbers, the narrow bridge was a bottleneck, forcing them to confront Clifford's men on equal terms. Edward sent Fauconberg and his horsemen to ford the river at another point and attack the Lancastrians from the side. The Lancastrians retreated but were chased to Dinting Dale and were all killed there; Clifford was slain by an arrow to his throat. Having cleared the immediate vicinity of enemy forces, the Yorkists repaired the bridge and pressed onwards to camp overnight at Sherburn-in-Elmet
. The Lancastrian army marched to Tadcaster, approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) north of Towton, and made camp there. As dawn broke on the next day, the two rival armies packed up their camps under dark skies and in strong winds. Although it was Palm Sunday
, a day of holy significance to Christians, the forces prepared for the battle ahead. As a result of this, a few documents named the engagement as the Battle of Palme Sonday Felde, but the name did not gain wide acceptance. Popular opinion favoured naming the battle after the village of Towton because of the battlefield's proximity to the settlement, which was the most prominent in the area at that time.
at that time, fought in the battle. Eight of them were sworn to the Yorkist cause whereas the Lancastrians had at least 19.
The battle would decide which of the two kings would rule over England, but while Edward fought with his men, Henry remained in York with Margaret. The Lancastrians regarded their king as a mere puppet of his wife and were wary of his mental instability. In comparison, Edward was inspirational to his followers. Eighteen years old, he was 6 foot tall and was an imposing sight in armour. The young, muscular Edward looked more like a king than the frail and shabby Henry. Skilled in combat, Edward led his men from the front, motivating them to do their best and uplifting their spirits. Edward's preference for bold offensive tactics would dictate the Yorkist plan of action for this engagement.
The Yorkists had other prominent leaders. Warwick had a flamboyant appeal to his followers. Edward Hall
, a 16th-century chronicler, attributed to Warwick an inspirational scene before the Battle of Towton; Hall wrote that Warwick, wounded at Ferrybridge, slew his horse and cried, "Let him fly that will, for surely I will tarry with him that will tarry with me", daring any Yorkist to quit the fight ahead. The description is likely apocryphal; military historian Christopher Gravett
said that the tale demonstrates Warwick's loyalty to Edward and his fellow men if it is true. Warwick placed great value on his uncle, Lord Fauconberg, whom Hall called a "man of great policy, and of much experience in martial feats". Small in stature and a veteran of the Anglo-French wars
, Fauconberg was highly esteemed by his peers in matters of military affairs. He was quick to adapt to new situations; among his previous achievements were the administration of the French town of Calais, leading several piracy expeditions of import, and the command of the vanguard at the Battle of Northampton. Of those appointed to raise men for the battle, Norfolk likely never made it to the engagement due to his advanced age, and his knights—Walter Blount
and Robert Horne—would have taken command of his contingent. In any event, Norfolk was an "unpredictable ally"; he had joined the Yorkists to establish a power base for himself in eastern England, and wavered in his support for their cause on various occasions.
Without their king on the battlefield, the Lancastrians relied on Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset
, to command their army. He was fairly experienced in matters of war and is credited with clever manoeuvres that led the Lancastrians to victory at Wakefield and St Albans. According to several historians, however, Sir Andrew Trollope
, and not Somerset, was the Lancastrians' primary strategist. Trollope formerly served under Warwick in Calais before defecting to the Lancastrians in the early stages of the Wars of the Roses. His change of allegiance was a major blow to the Yorkists, for he was familiar with their men and had played a key role in their victories in France. Other notable Lancastrian leaders included Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter
, who had a reputation for violence and stupidity, and Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland
, whom Gravett described as lacking in intelligence. Northumberland had been one of the House of Lancaster's four linchpins of power at court. Two others were Thomas de Roos
and Ralph Dacre
, who also accompanied the army. The last had been Clifford, who had died earlier in the retreat from Ferrybridge.
chronicler Jehan de Waurin
(1398–1474) was a more contemporary source, but his chronicle was made available to the public only from 1891, and several mistakes in it discouraged historians at that time from using it. Later reconstructions of the battle were based on Hall's version, supplemented by minor details from other sources.
The battle took place on a plateau
between the villages of Saxton (to the south) and Towton (to the north). The region was agricultural land, with plenty of wide open areas and small roads on which to manoeuvre the armies. Two roads ran through the area: the Old London Road, which connected Towton to the English capital, and a direct road between Saxton and Towton. The steeply banked Cock Beck
flowed in an S-shaped course around the plateau from the north to west. The plateau was bisected by the Towton Dale, which ran from the west and extended into the North Acres in the east. Woodlands were scattered along the beck; Renshaw Woods lined the river on the north-western side of the plateau, and south of Towton Dale, Castle Hill Wood grew on the west side of the plateau at a bend in the beck. The area to the north-east of this forest would be known as Bloody Meadow after the battle.
According to Gravett and fellow military enthusiast Trevor James Halsall, Somerset's decision to engage the Yorkist army on this plateau was sound. Defending the ground just before Towton would block any enemy advance towards the city of York, whether they moved along the London–Towton road or an old Roman road to the west. The Lancastrians deployed on the north side of the dale, using the valley as a "protective ditch"; the disadvantage of this position was that they could not see beyond the southern ridge of the dale. The Lancastrian flanks were protected by marshes; their right was further secured by the steep banks of the Cock Beck. The width of their deployment area did not allow for a longer front line, depriving the Lancastrians of the opportunity to use their numerical superiority. Waurin's account gave rise to the suggestion that Somerset ordered a force of mounted spearmen to conceal itself in Castle Hill Wood, ready to charge into the Yorkist left flank at an opportune time in battle.
The Yorkists appeared as the Lancastrians finished deployment. Line after line of soldiers crested the southern ridge of the dale and formed up in ranks opposite their enemies as snow began to fall. Edward's army was outnumbered and Norfolk's troops had yet to arrive to join them. They were also quite exhausted after their long march to reach the field, whereas the Lancastrians had travelled a much shorter distance from York.
s, capable of piercing plate armour and penetrating into the flesh underneath. The response from the Lancastrian archers was ineffective as the heavy wind blew snow in their faces. They found it difficult to judge the range and pick out their targets and their arrows fell short of the Yorkist ranks; Fauconberg had ordered his men to retreat after firing one volley, thus avoiding any casualties. Unable to observe their results, the Lancastrians shot until they had used up most of their arrows, leaving a thick, prickly carpet of arrows in the ground in front of the Yorkists.
After the Lancastrians had ceased shooting their arrows, Fauconberg ordered his archers to step forward again to shoot. When they had exhausted their ammunition, the Yorkists plucked arrows off the ground in front of them—arrows shot by their foes—and continued shooting. Coming under fire without any effective response of its own, the Lancastrian army moved from its position to engage the Yorkists in close combat. Seeing the advancing mass of men, the Yorkist archers shot a few more volleys before retreating behind their ranks of men-at-arms, leaving thousands of arrows in the ground to hinder the Lancastrian attack.
As the Yorkists reformed their ranks to receive the Lancastrian charge, their left flank came under attack by the horsemen from Castle Hill Wood mentioned by Waurin. The Yorkist left wing fell into disarray and several men started to flee. Edward had to take command of the left wing to save the situation. By engaging in the fight and encouraging his followers, his example inspired many to stand their ground. The armies clashed and archers shot into the mass of men at short range. The Lancastrians continuously threw fresher men into the fray and gradually the numerically inferior Yorkist army was forced to give ground and retreat up the southern ridge. Gravett thought that the Lancastrian left had less momentum than the rest of its formation, skewing the line of battle such that its western end tilted towards Saxton.
The fighting continued for three hours, according to research by English Heritage
, a government body in charge of conservation of historic sites. It was indecisive until the arrival of Norfolk's men. Marching up the Old London Road, Norfolk's contingent was hidden from view until they crested the ridge and attacked the Lancastrian left flank. The Lancastrians continued to give fight but the advantage had shifted to the Yorkists. By the end of the day, the Lancastrian line had broken up, as small groups of men began fleeing for their lives. Polydore Vergil
, chronicler for Henry VII of England
, claimed that combat lasted for a total of 10 hours, although that is probably an exaggeration.
Archaeological findings in the late 20th century shed light on the final moments of the battle. In 1996 workmen at a construction site in the town of Towton uncovered a mass grave, which archaeologists believed to contain the remains of men who were slain during or after the battle in 1461. The bodies showed severe injuries to their upper torsos; arms and skulls were cracked or shattered. One specimen, known as Towton 25, had the front of his skull bisected: a weapon had slashed across his face, cutting a deep wound that split the bone. The skull was also pierced by another deep wound, a horizontal cut from a blade across the back.
The Lancastrians suffered greater losses in their rout from the battlefield. Men struggling across the river were dragged down by currents and drowned. Those floundering were stepped on and pushed under water by their comrades behind them as they rushed to get away from the Yorkists. As the Lancastrians struggled across the river, Yorkist archers rode to high vantage points and shot arrows at them. The dead began to pile up and the chronicles state that the Lancastrians eventually fled across these "bridges" of bodies. The chase continued northwards across the River Wharfe, which was larger than Cock Beck. A bridge over the river collapsed under the flood of men and many drowned trying to cross. Those who hid in Tadcaster and York were hunted down and killed.
A newsletter dated 4 April 1461 reported a widely circulated figure of 28,000 casualties in the battle, which Charles Ross
and other historians believe was exaggerated. The number was taken from the heralds' estimate of the dead and appeared in letters from Edward and the Bishop of Salisbury, Richard Beauchamp. Other contemporary sources gave higher numbers, ranging from 30,000 to 38,000; Hall quoted an exact figure of 36,776. An exception was the Annales rerum anglicarum, which stated the Lancastrians suffered 9,000 casualties—an estimate Ross found to be more believable. The Lancastrian nobility suffered heavy losses. Trollope and Northumberland fell in battle, and Lord Dacre was said to have been killed by an archer who was perched in a "bur tree" (a local term for an Elder
). Conversely, the Yorkists suffered the loss of only one notable member of the gentry—Horne—at Towton.
On receiving news of their army's defeat, Henry fled into exile in Scotland with his wife and son. They were later joined by Somerset, Roos, Exeter, and the few Lancastrian nobles who escaped the battlefield. The Battle of Towton severely reduced the power of the House of Lancaster in England; the linchpins of their power at court (Northumberland, Clifford, Roos, and Dacre) had died or fled the country, ending the house's domination over the north of England. Edward further exploited the situation, naming 14 Lancastrian peers as traitors. Approximately 96 Lancastrians of the rank of knight and below were also attainted
—24 of them members of parliament. The new king preferred winning over his enemies to his cause; the nobles he attainted either died in the battle or had refused to submit to him. The estates of a few of these nobles were confiscated by the crown but the rest were untouched, remaining in the care of their families. Edward also pardoned many of those he attainted after they submitted to his rule.
Although Henry was at large in Scotland with his son, the battle put an end (for the time being) to disputes over the country's state of leadership since the Act of Accord. The English people were assured that there was now one true king—Edward. He turned his attention to consolidating his rule over the country, winning over the people and putting down the rebellions raised by the few remaining Lancastrian diehards. He knighted several of his supporters and elevated several of his gentry supporters to the peerage
; Fauconberg was made the Earl of Kent
. Warwick benefited the most from Edward's rule after the battle. He received parts of Northumberland's and Clifford's holdings, and was made "the king's lieutenant in the North and admiral of England." Edward bestowed on him many offices of power and wealth, further enhancing the earl's considerable influence and riches.
By 1464, the Yorkists had "wiped out all effective Lancastrian resistance in the north of England." Edward's reign was not interrupted until 1470; by that point in time, his relationship with Warwick had deteriorated to such an extent that the earl defected to the Lancastrians and forced Edward to flee England, restoring Henry to the throne. The interruption of Yorkist rule was brief, as Edward regained his throne after defeating Warwick and his Lancastrian cohorts at the Battle of Barnet
in 1471.
wrote a number of dramatisations of historic figures. The use of history as a backdrop, against which the familiar characters act out Shakespeare's drama, lends a sense of realism to his plays. Shakespeare wrote a three-part play about Henry VI, relying heavily on Hall's chronicle as a source. His vision of the Battle of Towton (Henry VI, Part 3
, Act 2, Scene 5), touted as the "bloodiest" engagement in the Wars of the Roses, became a set piece about the "terror of civil war, a national terror that is essentially familial". Historian Bertram Wolffe said it was thanks to Shakespeare's dramatisation of the battle that the weak and ineffectual Henry was at least remembered by English society, albeit for his pining to have been born a shepherd rather than a king.
Shakespeare's version of the battle presents a notable scene that comes immediately after Henry's soliloquy. Henry witnesses the laments of two soldiers in the battle. One slays his opponent in hope of plunder, only to find the victim is his son; the other kills his enemy, who turns out to be his father. Both killers have acted out of greed and fell into a state of deep grieving after discovering their misdeeds. Shakespearian scholar Arthur Percival Rossiter names the scene as the most notable of the playwright's written "rituals". The delivery of the event follows the pattern of an opera: after a long speech, the actors alternate among one another to deliver single-line asides to the audience. Shakespeare also deviated from his standard practice of using historical figures to expound on the themes while their actions are reflected on by fictional characters. In this scene of grief, anonymous fictional characters are used to illustrate the ills of civil war while a historical king reflects on their fates. Emeritus Professor of English Literature Michael Hattaway comments that Shakespeare intended to show Henry's sadness over the war, to elicit the same emotion among the audience and to expose Henry's ineptness as king.
The Battle of Towton was re-examined by Geoffrey Hill
in his poem "Funeral Music" (1968). Hill presents the historical event through the voices of its combatants, looking at the turmoil of the era through their eyes. The common soldiers grouse about their physical discomforts and the sacrifices that they had made for the ideas glorified by their leaders. They share their superiors' determination to seek the destruction of their opponents, even at the cost of their lives. Hill depicts the participants' belief that the event was pre-destined and of utmost importance as a farce; the world went about its business regardless of the Battle of Towton.
, younger brother of Edward, started to build a chapel to commemorate the battle. Richard died at the Battle of Bosworth Field
in 1485 and the building was never completed. It eventually fell into disrepair and collapsed. The ruins of the structure were evident five centuries later. In 1929, a stone cross supposedly from the chapel was used to erect the Towton Cross (also known as Lord Dacre's Cross) to commemorate those who died in the battle. Several mounds on the battlefield were thought to contain casualties of the battle, although historians believe these to be tumuli
of much earlier origin. More burial sites related to the battle are found on Chapel Hill and around Saxton. Lord Dacre was buried at the Church of All Saints in Saxton and his tomb was reported in the late 19th century to be well maintained, although several of its panels had been weathered away. The bur tree from which Dacre's killer shot his arrow was cut down by the late 19th century, leaving its stump on the battlefield. Centuries after the battle, various relics that have been found in the area include rings, arrowheads and coins.
The people of Elizabethan-era
England remembered the battle as dramatised by Shakespeare, and the image of the engagement as the charnel house where many sons of England were cut down endured for centuries. However, at the start of the 21st century, the "largest and bloodiest battle ever fought on English soil" was no longer prominent in the public consciousness. British journalists lamented that people were ignorant of the Battle of Towton and of its significance. According to English Heritage, the battle was of the "greatest importance"; it was one of the largest, if not the largest, fought in England and it resulted in the replacement of one royal dynasty by another. Hill expressed a different opinion. Although impressed with the casualty figures touted by the chroniclers, he believed the battle brought no monumental changes to the lives of the English people.
The Battle of Towton was associated with a tradition previously upheld in the villages of Tysoe
, Warwickshire. For centuries the villagers had made it a point to clear an area on a slope of the Vale of the Red Horse
on each anniversary of the engagement, exposing a large figure of a horse cut into the red soil. They claimed to do this to honour the Earl of Warwick's inspirational deed of slaying his horse to show his resolve to stand and fight with the common soldiers. Local historian Mary Dormer Harris believed that the villagers modified the original Red Horse, which dated to pre-historic times, to a version that reflected mediaeval horses. The tradition died in 1798 when the Inclosure Acts implemented by the English government redesignated the common land
, on which the equine figure was located, as private property. The scouring was revived during the early 20th century but has since stopped.
House of York
The House of York was a branch of the English royal House of Plantagenet, three members of which became English kings in the late 15th century. The House of York was descended in the paternal line from Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, the fourth surviving son of Edward III, but also represented...
and Lancaster
House of Lancaster
The House of Lancaster was a branch of the royal House of Plantagenet. It was one of the opposing factions involved in the Wars of the Roses, an intermittent civil war which affected England and Wales during the 15th century...
over the English throne. The Lancastrians backed the reigning King of England, Henry VI
Henry VI of England
Henry VI was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. Until 1437, his realm was governed by regents. Contemporaneous accounts described him as peaceful and pious, not suited for the violent dynastic civil wars, known as the Wars...
, an indecisive man who suffered bouts of madness. The leader of the Yorkists was initially Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York
Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York
Richard Plantagenêt, 3rd Duke of York, 6th Earl of March, 4th Earl of Cambridge, and 7th Earl of Ulster, conventionally called Richard of York was a leading English magnate, great-grandson of King Edward III...
, who believed Henry was leading the country to ruin by overly favouring incompetent Lancastrian members of the court. Fuelled by rivalries between influential supporters of both houses, York's attempts to remove the favoured Lancastrian courtiers from power escalated into a full-blown conflict. After capturing Henry at the Battle of Northampton
Battle of Northampton (1460)
The Battle of Northampton was a battle in the Wars of the Roses, which took place on 10 July 1460.-Background:The Yorkist cause seemed finished after the previous disaster at Ludford Bridge...
in 1460, the duke, who was of royal blood, issued his own claim to the throne. Even York's closest supporters among the nobility were reluctant to usurp an established royal lineage; instead, the nobles passed by a majority vote the Act of Accord
Act of Accord
The Act of Accord was passed by the English Parliament on 25 October 1460, fifteen days after Richard, Duke of York had entered the Council Chamber and laid his hand on the empty throne. Under the Act, King Henry VI of England was to retain the crown for life but York and his heirs were to succeed....
, which ruled that the duke and his heirs would succeed the throne on Henry's death.
The Queen of England, Margaret of Anjou
Margaret of Anjou
Margaret of Anjou was the wife of King Henry VI of England. As such, she was Queen consort of England from 1445 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471; and Queen consort of France from 1445 to 1453...
, refused to accept an arrangement that deprived her son—Edward of Westminster—of his birthright. She had fled to Scotland after the Yorkist victory at Northampton; there she began raising an army, promising her followers the freedom to plunder on the march south through England. Her Lancastrian supporters also mustered in the north of England, preparing for her arrival. York marched with his army to meet this threat, but he was lured into a trap at Wakefield
Battle of Wakefield
The Battle of Wakefield took place at Sandal Magna near Wakefield, in West Yorkshire in Northern England, on 30 December 1460. It was a major battle of the Wars of the Roses...
and killed. The duke and his second son Edmund, Earl of Rutland
Edmund, Earl of Rutland
Edmund, Earl of Rutland was the fifth child and second surviving son of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York and Cecily Neville...
, were decapitated by the Lancastrians and their heads were impaled on spikes atop the Micklegate Bar, a gatehouse of the city of York. The leadership of the House of York passed onto the duke's heir, Edward
Edward IV of England
Edward IV was King of England from 4 March 1461 until 3 October 1470, and again from 11 April 1471 until his death. He was the first Yorkist King of England...
.
The victors of Wakefield were joined by Margaret's army and they marched south, plundering settlements in their wake. They liberated Henry after defeating the Yorkist army of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick
Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick
Richard Neville KG, jure uxoris 16th Earl of Warwick and suo jure 6th Earl of Salisbury and 8th and 5th Baron Montacute , known as Warwick the Kingmaker, was an English nobleman, administrator, and military commander...
, in the Second Battle of St Albans
Second Battle of St Albans
The Second Battle of St Albans was a battle of the English Wars of the Roses fought on 17 February, 1461, at St Albans. The army of the Yorkist faction under the Earl of Warwick attempted to bar the road to London north of the town. The rival Lancastrian army used a wide outflanking manoeuvre to...
, and continued pillaging on their way to London. As a result, the city of London refused to open its gates to Henry and Margaret for fear of being looted. The Lancastrian army was short on supplies and had no adequate means to replenish them. When Margaret learned that Edward of York and his army had won the Battle of Mortimer's Cross
Battle of Mortimer's Cross
The Battle of Mortimer's Cross was fought on 2 February 1461 near Wigmore, Herefordshire . It was part of the Wars of the Roses....
in Herefordshire and were marching towards London, she withdrew the Lancastrians to the city of York. Warwick and the remnants of his army marched from St Albans to join Edward's men and the Yorkists were welcomed into London. Having lost custody of Henry, the Yorkists needed a justification to continue taking up arms against the king and his Lancastrian followers. On 4 March, Warwick proclaimed the young Yorkist leader as King Edward IV. The proclamation gained greater acceptance than Richard of York's earlier claim, as several nobles previously opposed to letting Edward's father ascend the throne viewed the Lancastrian actions as a betrayal of the legally established Accord.
The country now had two kings—a situation that could not be allowed to persist, especially if Edward was to be formally crowned. Edward offered amnesty to any Lancastrian supporter who renounced Henry. The move was intended to win over the commoners; his offer did not extend to wealthy Lancastrians (mostly the nobles). The young king summoned and ordered his followers to march towards York to take back his family's city and to formally depose Henry through force of arms. The Yorkist army moved along three routes. Warwick's uncle, Lord Fauconberg
William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent
William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent KG and jure uxoris 6th Baron Fauconberg, was an English nobleman and soldier.-Early life:...
, led a group to clear the way to York for the main body, which was led by Edward. John de Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk
John de Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk
Sir John de Mowbray, 3rd Duke of Norfolk KG, Earl Marshal was an important player in the Wars of the Roses.He was the son of John Mowbray, 2nd Duke of Norfolk and Lady Katherine Neville...
, was sent east to raise forces and rejoin Edward before the battle. Warwick's group moved to the west of the main body, through the English Midlands, gathering men as they went. On 28 March, the leading elements of the Yorkist army came upon the remains of the crossing in Ferrybridge
Ferrybridge
Ferrybridge is a village in West Yorkshire, England at a historically important crossing of the River Aire. It is linked to other communities by the A1, which follows the route of the Great North Road....
that spanned the River Aire
River Aire
The River Aire is a major river in Yorkshire, England of length . Part of the river is canalised, and is known as the Aire and Calder Navigation....
. They were rebuilding the bridge when they were attacked and routed
Battle of Ferrybridge
The Battle of Ferrybridge, 28 March 1461, was a small engagement between the houses of York and Lancaster before the larger battle of Towton, during the period known as the Wars of the Roses....
by a small band of Lancastrians, consisting of approximately 500 men led by John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford
John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford
John Clifford, 9th Baron de Clifford, also 9th Lord of Skipton was a Lancastrian military leader during the Wars of the Roses...
.
Learning of the encounter, Edward led the Yorkist main army to the bridge and was forced into a gruelling battle; although the Yorkists were superior in numbers, the narrow bridge was a bottleneck, forcing them to confront Clifford's men on equal terms. Edward sent Fauconberg and his horsemen to ford the river at another point and attack the Lancastrians from the side. The Lancastrians retreated but were chased to Dinting Dale and were all killed there; Clifford was slain by an arrow to his throat. Having cleared the immediate vicinity of enemy forces, the Yorkists repaired the bridge and pressed onwards to camp overnight at Sherburn-in-Elmet
Sherburn-in-Elmet
Sherburn-in-Elmet is a town and civil parish in the Selby district of North Yorkshire, England, situated close to Selby. It is one of only three places in the area to be explicitly associated with the ancient Celtic kingdom of Elmet via featuring the kingdom's title in its name, the others being...
. The Lancastrian army marched to Tadcaster, approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) north of Towton, and made camp there. As dawn broke on the next day, the two rival armies packed up their camps under dark skies and in strong winds. Although it was Palm Sunday
Palm Sunday
Palm Sunday is a Christian moveable feast that falls on the Sunday before Easter. The feast commemorates Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem, an event mentioned in all four Canonical Gospels. ....
, a day of holy significance to Christians, the forces prepared for the battle ahead. As a result of this, a few documents named the engagement as the Battle of Palme Sonday Felde, but the name did not gain wide acceptance. Popular opinion favoured naming the battle after the village of Towton because of the battlefield's proximity to the settlement, which was the most prominent in the area at that time.
Force compositions
Contemporary sources declare that the two armies were huge, stating that more than 100,000 men fought in the battle. One of the sources, an account in William Gregory's Chronicle of London (15th century) by a soldier who had served in the Wars, claimed that the Yorkists had 200,000 soldiers, while the Lancastrian army had even more. Later historians believe that these figures were exaggerated, and that a figure of 50,000 is more likely. Nevertheless, the armies gathered at Towton were among the largest at the time. An analysis of skeletons found in a mass grave in 1996 showed that the soldiers came from all walks of life at that time; they were on average 30 years old, and several were veterans of previous engagements. Many knights and noblemen, approximately three-quarters of the English peersPeerage of England
The Peerage of England comprises all peerages created in the Kingdom of England before the Act of Union in 1707. In that year, the Peerages of England and Scotland were replaced by one Peerage of Great Britain....
at that time, fought in the battle. Eight of them were sworn to the Yorkist cause whereas the Lancastrians had at least 19.
The battle would decide which of the two kings would rule over England, but while Edward fought with his men, Henry remained in York with Margaret. The Lancastrians regarded their king as a mere puppet of his wife and were wary of his mental instability. In comparison, Edward was inspirational to his followers. Eighteen years old, he was 6 foot tall and was an imposing sight in armour. The young, muscular Edward looked more like a king than the frail and shabby Henry. Skilled in combat, Edward led his men from the front, motivating them to do their best and uplifting their spirits. Edward's preference for bold offensive tactics would dictate the Yorkist plan of action for this engagement.
Edward Hall
Edward Hall , English chronicler and lawyer, was born about the end of the 15th century, being a son of John Hall of Northall, Shropshire....
, a 16th-century chronicler, attributed to Warwick an inspirational scene before the Battle of Towton; Hall wrote that Warwick, wounded at Ferrybridge, slew his horse and cried, "Let him fly that will, for surely I will tarry with him that will tarry with me", daring any Yorkist to quit the fight ahead. The description is likely apocryphal; military historian Christopher Gravett
Christopher Gravett
Christopher Gravett is a British historian specialising in the military history of the Middle Ages, with an interest in the arms and armour of the period.Gravett has written a number of books and acts as an advisor for film and television projects...
said that the tale demonstrates Warwick's loyalty to Edward and his fellow men if it is true. Warwick placed great value on his uncle, Lord Fauconberg, whom Hall called a "man of great policy, and of much experience in martial feats". Small in stature and a veteran of the Anglo-French wars
Hundred Years' War
The Hundred Years' War was a series of separate wars waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet, also known as the House of Anjou, for the French throne, which had become vacant upon the extinction of the senior Capetian line of French kings...
, Fauconberg was highly esteemed by his peers in matters of military affairs. He was quick to adapt to new situations; among his previous achievements were the administration of the French town of Calais, leading several piracy expeditions of import, and the command of the vanguard at the Battle of Northampton. Of those appointed to raise men for the battle, Norfolk likely never made it to the engagement due to his advanced age, and his knights—Walter Blount
Walter Blount, 1st Baron Mountjoy
Sir Walter Blount, 1st Baron Mountjoy KG was an English baron and aristocrat.-Early life and family:Walter Blount was born circa 1416, the eldest son of Sir Thomas Blount and Margery Gresley and grandson of Sir Walter Blount.-Career:He was made Steward of the High Peak in Derbyshire and became a...
and Robert Horne—would have taken command of his contingent. In any event, Norfolk was an "unpredictable ally"; he had joined the Yorkists to establish a power base for himself in eastern England, and wavered in his support for their cause on various occasions.
Without their king on the battlefield, the Lancastrians relied on Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset
Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset
Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset was an important Lancastrian military commander during the English Wars of the Roses. He is sometimes numbered the 2nd Duke of Somerset, since the title was re-created for his father after his uncle died...
, to command their army. He was fairly experienced in matters of war and is credited with clever manoeuvres that led the Lancastrians to victory at Wakefield and St Albans. According to several historians, however, Sir Andrew Trollope
Andrew Trollope
Sir Andrew Trollope was an English soldier during the later stages of the Hundred Years War and at the time of the Wars of the Roses. Born into a family of Durham dyers, Trollope began his long military career in France in the 1420s as a man at arms, serving under Sir John Fastolf and later John...
, and not Somerset, was the Lancastrians' primary strategist. Trollope formerly served under Warwick in Calais before defecting to the Lancastrians in the early stages of the Wars of the Roses. His change of allegiance was a major blow to the Yorkists, for he was familiar with their men and had played a key role in their victories in France. Other notable Lancastrian leaders included Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter
Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter
Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter was a Lancastrian leader during the English Wars of the Roses. He was the only son of John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter and his first wife Lady Anne Stafford. His maternal grandparents were Edmund Stafford, 5th Earl of Stafford and Anne of Gloucester.He inherited...
, who had a reputation for violence and stupidity, and Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland
Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland
Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland was the son of Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland and Lady Eleanor Neville, daughter of Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland and his second wife Joan Beaufort.-Family:...
, whom Gravett described as lacking in intelligence. Northumberland had been one of the House of Lancaster's four linchpins of power at court. Two others were Thomas de Roos
Thomas de Ros, 10th Baron de Ros
Thomas de Ros, 10th Baron de Ros of Helmsley was a follower of the House of Lancaster during the Wars of the Roses.-Family:...
and Ralph Dacre
Baron Dacre
Baron Dacre is a title that has been created three times in the Peerage of England, every time by writ. The first creation came in 1321 when Ralph Dacre was summoned to Parliament as Lord Dacre. He married Margaret, 2nd Baroness Multon of Gilsland, heiress of a large estate in Cumbria centred on...
, who also accompanied the army. The last had been Clifford, who had died earlier in the retreat from Ferrybridge.
Deployment
Very few historical sources give detailed accounts of the battle and they do not describe the exact deployments of the armies. The paucity of such primary sources led early historians to adopt Hall's chronicle as their main resource for the engagement, despite its authorship 70 years after the event and questions over the origin of his information. The BurgundianBurgundian Netherlands
In the history of the Low Countries, the Burgundian Netherlands refers to a number of Imperial and French fiefs ruled in personal union by the House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs in the period from 1384 to 1482...
chronicler Jehan de Waurin
Jehan de Waurin
Jehan de Waurin , French chronicler, belonged to a noble family of Artois, and was present at the battle of Agincourt....
(1398–1474) was a more contemporary source, but his chronicle was made available to the public only from 1891, and several mistakes in it discouraged historians at that time from using it. Later reconstructions of the battle were based on Hall's version, supplemented by minor details from other sources.
The battle took place on a plateau
Plateau
In geology and earth science, a plateau , also called a high plain or tableland, is an area of highland, usually consisting of relatively flat terrain. A highly eroded plateau is called a dissected plateau...
between the villages of Saxton (to the south) and Towton (to the north). The region was agricultural land, with plenty of wide open areas and small roads on which to manoeuvre the armies. Two roads ran through the area: the Old London Road, which connected Towton to the English capital, and a direct road between Saxton and Towton. The steeply banked Cock Beck
Cock Beck
Cock Beck is a stream in the outlying areas of East Leeds, West Yorkshire, England, which runs from its source due to a runoff north-west of Whinmoor, skirting east of Swarcliffe and Manston , past Pendas Fields, Scholes, Barwick-in-Elmet, Aberford, Towton, Stutton, and Tadcaster, where it flows...
flowed in an S-shaped course around the plateau from the north to west. The plateau was bisected by the Towton Dale, which ran from the west and extended into the North Acres in the east. Woodlands were scattered along the beck; Renshaw Woods lined the river on the north-western side of the plateau, and south of Towton Dale, Castle Hill Wood grew on the west side of the plateau at a bend in the beck. The area to the north-east of this forest would be known as Bloody Meadow after the battle.
According to Gravett and fellow military enthusiast Trevor James Halsall, Somerset's decision to engage the Yorkist army on this plateau was sound. Defending the ground just before Towton would block any enemy advance towards the city of York, whether they moved along the London–Towton road or an old Roman road to the west. The Lancastrians deployed on the north side of the dale, using the valley as a "protective ditch"; the disadvantage of this position was that they could not see beyond the southern ridge of the dale. The Lancastrian flanks were protected by marshes; their right was further secured by the steep banks of the Cock Beck. The width of their deployment area did not allow for a longer front line, depriving the Lancastrians of the opportunity to use their numerical superiority. Waurin's account gave rise to the suggestion that Somerset ordered a force of mounted spearmen to conceal itself in Castle Hill Wood, ready to charge into the Yorkist left flank at an opportune time in battle.
The Yorkists appeared as the Lancastrians finished deployment. Line after line of soldiers crested the southern ridge of the dale and formed up in ranks opposite their enemies as snow began to fall. Edward's army was outnumbered and Norfolk's troops had yet to arrive to join them. They were also quite exhausted after their long march to reach the field, whereas the Lancastrians had travelled a much shorter distance from York.
Fighting
As Somerset was content to stand and let his foes come to him, the opening move of the battle was made by the Yorkists. Noticing the direction and strength of the wind, Fauconberg ordered all Yorkist archers to step forward and unleash a volley of their arrows from what would be the standard maximum range of their longbows. With the wind behind them, the Yorkist missiles travelled farther than usual, plunging deep into the masses of soldiers on the hill slope. Many of the shafts bore bodkin arrowheadBodkin point
A bodkin point is a type of arrowhead. In its simplest form it is an uncomplicated squared metal spike, and was used extensively during the Middle Ages. The typical bodkin was a square-section arrowhead, generally up to 4½" long and ⅜" thick at its widest point, tapered down behind this initial...
s, capable of piercing plate armour and penetrating into the flesh underneath. The response from the Lancastrian archers was ineffective as the heavy wind blew snow in their faces. They found it difficult to judge the range and pick out their targets and their arrows fell short of the Yorkist ranks; Fauconberg had ordered his men to retreat after firing one volley, thus avoiding any casualties. Unable to observe their results, the Lancastrians shot until they had used up most of their arrows, leaving a thick, prickly carpet of arrows in the ground in front of the Yorkists.
As the Yorkists reformed their ranks to receive the Lancastrian charge, their left flank came under attack by the horsemen from Castle Hill Wood mentioned by Waurin. The Yorkist left wing fell into disarray and several men started to flee. Edward had to take command of the left wing to save the situation. By engaging in the fight and encouraging his followers, his example inspired many to stand their ground. The armies clashed and archers shot into the mass of men at short range. The Lancastrians continuously threw fresher men into the fray and gradually the numerically inferior Yorkist army was forced to give ground and retreat up the southern ridge. Gravett thought that the Lancastrian left had less momentum than the rest of its formation, skewing the line of battle such that its western end tilted towards Saxton.
The fighting continued for three hours, according to research by English Heritage
English Heritage
English Heritage . is an executive non-departmental public body of the British Government sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport...
, a government body in charge of conservation of historic sites. It was indecisive until the arrival of Norfolk's men. Marching up the Old London Road, Norfolk's contingent was hidden from view until they crested the ridge and attacked the Lancastrian left flank. The Lancastrians continued to give fight but the advantage had shifted to the Yorkists. By the end of the day, the Lancastrian line had broken up, as small groups of men began fleeing for their lives. Polydore Vergil
Polydore Vergil
Polydore Vergil was an Italian historian, otherwise known as PV Castellensis. He is better known as the contemporary historian during the early Tudor dynasty. He was hired by King Henry VIII of England, who wanted to distance himself from his father Henry VII as much as possible, to document...
, chronicler for Henry VII of England
Henry VII of England
Henry VII was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, as the first monarch of the House of Tudor....
, claimed that combat lasted for a total of 10 hours, although that is probably an exaggeration.
Aftermath
The tired Lancastrians flung off their helmets and armour to run faster. Without such protection, they were much more vulnerable to the attacks of the Yorkists. Norfolk's troops were much fresher and faster. Fleeing across Bloody Meadow, many Lancastrians were cut down from behind or were slain after they had surrendered. Before the battle, both sides had issued the order to give no quarter and the Yorkists were in no mood to spare anyone after the long, gruelling fight. A number of Lancastrians, such as Trollope, also had substantial bounties on their heads. Gregory's chronicle stated 42 knights were killed after they were taken prisoner.Archaeological findings in the late 20th century shed light on the final moments of the battle. In 1996 workmen at a construction site in the town of Towton uncovered a mass grave, which archaeologists believed to contain the remains of men who were slain during or after the battle in 1461. The bodies showed severe injuries to their upper torsos; arms and skulls were cracked or shattered. One specimen, known as Towton 25, had the front of his skull bisected: a weapon had slashed across his face, cutting a deep wound that split the bone. The skull was also pierced by another deep wound, a horizontal cut from a blade across the back.
The Lancastrians suffered greater losses in their rout from the battlefield. Men struggling across the river were dragged down by currents and drowned. Those floundering were stepped on and pushed under water by their comrades behind them as they rushed to get away from the Yorkists. As the Lancastrians struggled across the river, Yorkist archers rode to high vantage points and shot arrows at them. The dead began to pile up and the chronicles state that the Lancastrians eventually fled across these "bridges" of bodies. The chase continued northwards across the River Wharfe, which was larger than Cock Beck. A bridge over the river collapsed under the flood of men and many drowned trying to cross. Those who hid in Tadcaster and York were hunted down and killed.
A newsletter dated 4 April 1461 reported a widely circulated figure of 28,000 casualties in the battle, which Charles Ross
Charles Ross (historian)
Charles Derek Ross was an English historian of the Late Middle Ages, specialising on the Wars of the Roses. He was Professor of Medieval History at the University of Bristol until his death in 1986, when he was killed by an intruder in his own home.His best known works are his biographies of...
and other historians believe was exaggerated. The number was taken from the heralds' estimate of the dead and appeared in letters from Edward and the Bishop of Salisbury, Richard Beauchamp. Other contemporary sources gave higher numbers, ranging from 30,000 to 38,000; Hall quoted an exact figure of 36,776. An exception was the Annales rerum anglicarum, which stated the Lancastrians suffered 9,000 casualties—an estimate Ross found to be more believable. The Lancastrian nobility suffered heavy losses. Trollope and Northumberland fell in battle, and Lord Dacre was said to have been killed by an archer who was perched in a "bur tree" (a local term for an Elder
Sambucus nigra
Sambucus nigra is a species complex of elder native to most of Europe.It is most commonly called Elder, Elderberry, Black Elder, European Elder, European Elderberry, European Black Elderberry, Common Elder, or Elder Bush when distinction from other species of Sambucus is needed...
). Conversely, the Yorkists suffered the loss of only one notable member of the gentry—Horne—at Towton.
On receiving news of their army's defeat, Henry fled into exile in Scotland with his wife and son. They were later joined by Somerset, Roos, Exeter, and the few Lancastrian nobles who escaped the battlefield. The Battle of Towton severely reduced the power of the House of Lancaster in England; the linchpins of their power at court (Northumberland, Clifford, Roos, and Dacre) had died or fled the country, ending the house's domination over the north of England. Edward further exploited the situation, naming 14 Lancastrian peers as traitors. Approximately 96 Lancastrians of the rank of knight and below were also attainted
Attainder
In English criminal law, attainder or attinctura is the metaphorical 'stain' or 'corruption of blood' which arises from being condemned for a serious capital crime . It entails losing not only one's property and hereditary titles, but typically also the right to pass them on to one's heirs...
—24 of them members of parliament. The new king preferred winning over his enemies to his cause; the nobles he attainted either died in the battle or had refused to submit to him. The estates of a few of these nobles were confiscated by the crown but the rest were untouched, remaining in the care of their families. Edward also pardoned many of those he attainted after they submitted to his rule.
Although Henry was at large in Scotland with his son, the battle put an end (for the time being) to disputes over the country's state of leadership since the Act of Accord. The English people were assured that there was now one true king—Edward. He turned his attention to consolidating his rule over the country, winning over the people and putting down the rebellions raised by the few remaining Lancastrian diehards. He knighted several of his supporters and elevated several of his gentry supporters to the peerage
Peerage
The Peerage is a legal system of largely hereditary titles in the United Kingdom, which constitute the ranks of British nobility and is part of the British honours system...
; Fauconberg was made the Earl of Kent
Earl of Kent
The peerage title Earl of Kent has been created eight times in the Peerage of England and once in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.See also Kingdom of Kent, Duke of Kent.-Earls of Kent, first creation :*Godwin, Earl of Wessex...
. Warwick benefited the most from Edward's rule after the battle. He received parts of Northumberland's and Clifford's holdings, and was made "the king's lieutenant in the North and admiral of England." Edward bestowed on him many offices of power and wealth, further enhancing the earl's considerable influence and riches.
By 1464, the Yorkists had "wiped out all effective Lancastrian resistance in the north of England." Edward's reign was not interrupted until 1470; by that point in time, his relationship with Warwick had deteriorated to such an extent that the earl defected to the Lancastrians and forced Edward to flee England, restoring Henry to the throne. The interruption of Yorkist rule was brief, as Edward regained his throne after defeating Warwick and his Lancastrian cohorts at the Battle of Barnet
Battle of Barnet
The Battle of Barnet was a decisive engagement in the Wars of the Roses, a dynastic conflict of 15th-century England. The military action, along with the subsequent Battle of Tewkesbury, secured the throne for Edward IV...
in 1471.
Literature
In the sixteenth century William ShakespeareWilliam Shakespeare
William Shakespeare was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon"...
wrote a number of dramatisations of historic figures. The use of history as a backdrop, against which the familiar characters act out Shakespeare's drama, lends a sense of realism to his plays. Shakespeare wrote a three-part play about Henry VI, relying heavily on Hall's chronicle as a source. His vision of the Battle of Towton (Henry VI, Part 3
Henry VI, part 3
Henry VI, Part 3 or The Third Part of Henry the Sixt is a history play by William Shakespeare believed to have been written in 1591, and set during the lifetime of King Henry VI of England...
, Act 2, Scene 5), touted as the "bloodiest" engagement in the Wars of the Roses, became a set piece about the "terror of civil war, a national terror that is essentially familial". Historian Bertram Wolffe said it was thanks to Shakespeare's dramatisation of the battle that the weak and ineffectual Henry was at least remembered by English society, albeit for his pining to have been born a shepherd rather than a king.
Shakespeare's version of the battle presents a notable scene that comes immediately after Henry's soliloquy. Henry witnesses the laments of two soldiers in the battle. One slays his opponent in hope of plunder, only to find the victim is his son; the other kills his enemy, who turns out to be his father. Both killers have acted out of greed and fell into a state of deep grieving after discovering their misdeeds. Shakespearian scholar Arthur Percival Rossiter names the scene as the most notable of the playwright's written "rituals". The delivery of the event follows the pattern of an opera: after a long speech, the actors alternate among one another to deliver single-line asides to the audience. Shakespeare also deviated from his standard practice of using historical figures to expound on the themes while their actions are reflected on by fictional characters. In this scene of grief, anonymous fictional characters are used to illustrate the ills of civil war while a historical king reflects on their fates. Emeritus Professor of English Literature Michael Hattaway comments that Shakespeare intended to show Henry's sadness over the war, to elicit the same emotion among the audience and to expose Henry's ineptness as king.
The Battle of Towton was re-examined by Geoffrey Hill
Geoffrey Hill
Geoffrey Hill is an English poet, professor emeritus of English literature and religion, and former co-director of the Editorial Institute, at Boston University. Hill has been considered to be among the most distinguished poets of his generation...
in his poem "Funeral Music" (1968). Hill presents the historical event through the voices of its combatants, looking at the turmoil of the era through their eyes. The common soldiers grouse about their physical discomforts and the sacrifices that they had made for the ideas glorified by their leaders. They share their superiors' determination to seek the destruction of their opponents, even at the cost of their lives. Hill depicts the participants' belief that the event was pre-destined and of utmost importance as a farce; the world went about its business regardless of the Battle of Towton.
Legacy
In 1483 King Richard IIIRichard III of England
Richard III was King of England for two years, from 1483 until his death in 1485 during the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty...
, younger brother of Edward, started to build a chapel to commemorate the battle. Richard died at the Battle of Bosworth Field
Battle of Bosworth Field
The Battle of Bosworth Field was the penultimate battle of the Wars of the Roses, the civil war between the House of Lancaster and the House of York that raged across England in the latter half of the 15th century. Fought on 22 August 1485, the battle was won by the Lancastrians...
in 1485 and the building was never completed. It eventually fell into disrepair and collapsed. The ruins of the structure were evident five centuries later. In 1929, a stone cross supposedly from the chapel was used to erect the Towton Cross (also known as Lord Dacre's Cross) to commemorate those who died in the battle. Several mounds on the battlefield were thought to contain casualties of the battle, although historians believe these to be tumuli
Tumulus
A tumulus is a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds, Hügelgrab or kurgans, and can be found throughout much of the world. A tumulus composed largely or entirely of stones is usually referred to as a cairn...
of much earlier origin. More burial sites related to the battle are found on Chapel Hill and around Saxton. Lord Dacre was buried at the Church of All Saints in Saxton and his tomb was reported in the late 19th century to be well maintained, although several of its panels had been weathered away. The bur tree from which Dacre's killer shot his arrow was cut down by the late 19th century, leaving its stump on the battlefield. Centuries after the battle, various relics that have been found in the area include rings, arrowheads and coins.
The people of Elizabethan-era
Elizabethan era
The Elizabethan era was the epoch in English history of Queen Elizabeth I's reign . Historians often depict it as the golden age in English history...
England remembered the battle as dramatised by Shakespeare, and the image of the engagement as the charnel house where many sons of England were cut down endured for centuries. However, at the start of the 21st century, the "largest and bloodiest battle ever fought on English soil" was no longer prominent in the public consciousness. British journalists lamented that people were ignorant of the Battle of Towton and of its significance. According to English Heritage, the battle was of the "greatest importance"; it was one of the largest, if not the largest, fought in England and it resulted in the replacement of one royal dynasty by another. Hill expressed a different opinion. Although impressed with the casualty figures touted by the chroniclers, he believed the battle brought no monumental changes to the lives of the English people.
The Battle of Towton was associated with a tradition previously upheld in the villages of Tysoe
Tysoe
Tysoe is a civil parish located in Warwickshire, England, north-west of Banbury. The three main settlements in the parish, Upper, Middle and Lower Tysoe are on a hill, hence the respective village names. Upper and Middle Tysoe have now merged, whereas Lower Tysoe is still separate, a little...
, Warwickshire. For centuries the villagers had made it a point to clear an area on a slope of the Vale of the Red Horse
Vale of the Red Horse
The Vale of the Red Horse is a rural area in South Warwickshire, England, below the escarpment of Edgehill. It takes its name from a hill figure of a horse once cut into the red clay. The figure is first recorded in 1607; it may have been Saxon in origin, and possibly connected with the war god Tiw...
on each anniversary of the engagement, exposing a large figure of a horse cut into the red soil. They claimed to do this to honour the Earl of Warwick's inspirational deed of slaying his horse to show his resolve to stand and fight with the common soldiers. Local historian Mary Dormer Harris believed that the villagers modified the original Red Horse, which dated to pre-historic times, to a version that reflected mediaeval horses. The tradition died in 1798 when the Inclosure Acts implemented by the English government redesignated the common land
Common land
Common land is land owned collectively or by one person, but over which other people have certain traditional rights, such as to allow their livestock to graze upon it, to collect firewood, or to cut turf for fuel...
, on which the equine figure was located, as private property. The scouring was revived during the early 20th century but has since stopped.