Battle of San Pasqual
Encyclopedia
The Battle of San Pasqual, also spelled San Pascual, was a military encounter that occurred during the Mexican-American War in what is now the San Pasqual Valley
community of the city of San Diego, California
. On December 6 and December 7, 1846, General Stephen W. Kearny
's US Army column, along with a smaller force of Marines, engaged a small contingent of Californio
s and their Presidial Lancers, led by Capt. Leonardo Cota; eventually joined by Major Andrés Pico
. After US reinforcements arrived, Kearny's troops were able to reach San Diego.
from Santa Fe
, Kearny sent back 200 of his 300 mounted dragoon
s after hearing from messenger Kit Carson
that all of California
had already been captured by Commodore Robert F. Stockton
and his 400 combined sailors and Marines
, and John C. Frémont
and his approximate 400 man California Battalion. After a grueling 850-mile (1,370 km) march across the Sonora Desert, Kearny and his mostly mule-mounted men finally reached California in a greatly weakened condition. There they met up with Captain Archibald Gillespie of the U.S. Marines, who brought a message from Stockton and his small force of 36 men and a small howitzer
which had recently been driven out of Los Angeles
. The total American forces amounted to about 179.
Lancers mounted on fresh horses led by Captain Leonardo Cota
. The Americans did not expect the Californios to be formidable adversaries, but Kearny still wanted to capitalize on a surprise attack if at all possible and capture the Californios' horse herd. He also wanted more exact information about the enemy force in preparation for an attack the following morning.
Lieutenant Thomas C. Hammond, together with a Californio deserter, Rafael Machado, and a detachment of six dragoon
s (light cavalry
)—one report says three dragoons and still another eleven—were ordered to scout Pico's position, which was located in a small Indian village in San Pasqual Valley. Hammond's scouting party was discovered by Captain Leonardo Cota
and some of his Californio Mexican lancers, while they were training in the valley below. The element of surprise was lost. At midnight Kearny ordered an immediate advance. It had rained that night. Men, muskets, pistols and equipment were wet and cold, but the troops after over six months without any action were eager to engage the Californios. Early in the morning of December 6, 1846, the column proceeded by twos across the ridge between Santa Maria (present day Ramona, California
) and San Pasqual. During the descent, while it was still dark and with a low lying fog, Kearny's force became strung out, and were caught in a disadvantageous position by General Pico's swift advance.
) which they used with great effect.
As the leading element of the American attack drew close to a Kumeyaay
village, the Californios wheeled back and fired their few firearms. One of their first shots killed Captain Johnston, but the Americans continued on and returned fire. The Californios retreated, and the Americans pursued. Captain Benjamin D. Moore ordered a second charge. This increased the distance between the American elements and further reduced the size of the leading element. When the Californios reversed, they were able to confront Captain Moore and his forces alone. He was quickly surrounded and killed. Other Americans caught up with the action, but their weapons misfired and many of them were wounded or killed by Californios using lances. Some were pulled from their horses by the Californios' lariats and then lanced. Mounted on mules, the Americans were particularly vulnerable because of the mules' noted reluctance to wheel. The better mounted Californios easily outflanked the Americans and picked them off with the long lances. The two howitzers the U.S. troops brought to the scene were not unlimbered in time to take part in the action.
Both Captain Gillespie and General Kearny were seriously wounded in the battle, and several of the other officers were killed or wounded. Captain Henry Turner temporarily took command and organized a defensive position, which permitted the rest of the command to catch up with the battered lead. Dr John S. Griffin, Kearny's surgeon, reported that the Americans had lost 17 killed and 18 wounded out of the 50 officers and men who engaged the enemy. They buried the dead in a mass grave. Pico's forces suffered fewer casualties; some accounts state 2 killed and 12 wounded, whereas American witnesses claim a half dozen fatalities.
The next day, December 7, 1846, Kearny and his battered column continued its march towards San Diego. Californio lancers established a blocking position near what is now known as "Mule Hill". General Kearny ordered Lieutenant William H. Emory
and a squad of dragoons to engage and drive off the menacing lancers. The dragoons easily forced the lancers away now having dry powder in their carbines while inflicting five dead before among the fleeing Californios. That evening Kearny again established a strong defensive perimeter and then sent Kit Carson, Edward Beale
and a young Indian guide for reinforcements from the American fleet anchored in San Diego Bay
. Under the cover of darkness, Carson and his team reached the American fleet. The US forces traveled to San Diego and united with the American fleet there. Together they were able to "drive" Californio forces (who had previously abandoned the skirmish) out of San Diego.
“On the morning of the 7th, having made ambulancse for our wounded . . . we proceeded on our march, when the enemy showed himself, occupying the hills in our front, which they left as we approached, till reaching San Bernardo a party of them took possession of a hill near to it and maintained their position until attacked by our advance, who quickly drove them from it, killing and wounding five of their number with no loss on our part.” (Cooke, 259)
Kearny sent dispatches carried by Lieutenant Beale and Kit Carson requesting urgent reinforcements to Commodore Stockton, who was headquartered at San Diego, 28 miles (45 km) to the south-southwest. Stockton quickly dispatched a unit of over 200 sailors and Marines, whose arrival caused the Californios to disperse. Kearny had already determined the night before (December 9) to continue the march the next morning, when the new forces arrived and then escorted Kearny's battered troops to San Diego, where they arrived December 12.
Some time after the battle, General Kearny wrote that the US had achieved victory since the Californios had "fled the field", but, his was not a highly shared view. Officers of the United States Navy viewed the battle as a defeat of the U.S. Army, while the Californios saw the engagement as a victory. To this day, who won is disputed.
During the late 19th and early 20th century, historians debated which force won or lost the battle. Clearly, Kearny retained the battle area, the ability to operate and maneuver, and also the initiative, though his losses were higher. The victor of the battle is still debated. The battle is also unique in that it is one of the few military battles in the United States that involved elements of the Army, Navy, Marines, and civilian volunteers, all in the same skirmish.
San Pasqual Valley, San Diego, California
San Pasqual Valley is the northernmost community of the city of San Diego. It is bordered on the north by the city of Escondido, on the east and west by unincorporated land within San Diego County, and on the south by the city of Poway and the community of Rancho Bernardo.State Highway 78 runs...
community of the city of San Diego, California
San Diego, California
San Diego is the eighth-largest city in the United States and second-largest city in California. The city is located on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Southern California, immediately adjacent to the Mexican border. The birthplace of California, San Diego is known for its mild year-round...
. On December 6 and December 7, 1846, General Stephen W. Kearny
Stephen W. Kearny
Stephen Watts Kearny surname also appears as Kearney in some historic sources; August 30, 1794 October 31, 1848), was one of the foremost antebellum frontier officers of the United States Army. He is remembered for his significant contributions in the Mexican-American War, especially the conquest...
's US Army column, along with a smaller force of Marines, engaged a small contingent of Californio
Californio
Californio is a term used to identify a Spanish-speaking Catholic people, regardless of race, born in California before 1848...
s and their Presidial Lancers, led by Capt. Leonardo Cota; eventually joined by Major Andrés Pico
Andrés Pico
Andrés Pico was a Californio who became a successful rancher, served as a military commander during the Mexican-American War; and was elected to the state assembly and senate after California became a state, when he was also commissioned as a brigadier general in the state militia.-Early...
. After US reinforcements arrived, Kearny's troops were able to reach San Diego.
Background
General Kearny had orders to assume command of U.S. forces in California, but before entering Alta CaliforniaAlta California
Alta California was a province and territory in the Viceroyalty of New Spain and later a territory and department in independent Mexico. The territory was created in 1769 out of the northern part of the former province of Las Californias, and consisted of the modern American states of California,...
from Santa Fe
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Santa Fe is the capital of the U.S. state of New Mexico. It is the fourth-largest city in the state and is the seat of . Santa Fe had a population of 67,947 in the 2010 census...
, Kearny sent back 200 of his 300 mounted dragoon
Dragoon
The word dragoon originally meant mounted infantry, who were trained in horse riding as well as infantry fighting skills. However, usage altered over time and during the 18th century, dragoons evolved into conventional light cavalry units and personnel...
s after hearing from messenger Kit Carson
Kit Carson
Christopher Houston "Kit" Carson was an American frontiersman and Indian fighter. Carson left home in rural present-day Missouri at age 16 and became a Mountain man and trapper in the West. Carson explored the west to California, and north through the Rocky Mountains. He lived among and married...
that all of California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
had already been captured by Commodore Robert F. Stockton
Robert F. Stockton
Robert Field Stockton was a United States naval commodore, notable in the capture of California during the Mexican-American War. He was a naval innovator and an early advocate for a propeller-driven, steam-powered navy. Stockton was from a notable political family and also served as a U.S...
and his 400 combined sailors and Marines
United States Marine Corps
The United States Marine Corps is a branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for providing power projection from the sea, using the mobility of the United States Navy to deliver combined-arms task forces rapidly. It is one of seven uniformed services of the United States...
, and John C. Frémont
John C. Frémont
John Charles Frémont , was an American military officer, explorer, and the first candidate of the anti-slavery Republican Party for the office of President of the United States. During the 1840s, that era's penny press accorded Frémont the sobriquet The Pathfinder...
and his approximate 400 man California Battalion. After a grueling 850-mile (1,370 km) march across the Sonora Desert, Kearny and his mostly mule-mounted men finally reached California in a greatly weakened condition. There they met up with Captain Archibald Gillespie of the U.S. Marines, who brought a message from Stockton and his small force of 36 men and a small howitzer
Howitzer
A howitzer is a type of artillery piece characterized by a relatively short barrel and the use of comparatively small propellant charges to propel projectiles at relatively high trajectories, with a steep angle of descent...
which had recently been driven out of Los Angeles
History of Los Angeles, California
Los Angeles changed rapidly after 1848, when California was transferred to the United States as a result of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican-American War...
. The total American forces amounted to about 179.
Prelude
Captain Archibald Gillespie's message from Stockton informed Kearny of the presence at San Pasqual of a force of about 100 CalifornioCalifornio
Californio is a term used to identify a Spanish-speaking Catholic people, regardless of race, born in California before 1848...
Lancers mounted on fresh horses led by Captain Leonardo Cota
Leonardo Cota
Leonardo Cota was a Captain with the Californios in the Mexican-American War; and later a Los Angeles County Supervisor.-Leonardo Cota:...
. The Americans did not expect the Californios to be formidable adversaries, but Kearny still wanted to capitalize on a surprise attack if at all possible and capture the Californios' horse herd. He also wanted more exact information about the enemy force in preparation for an attack the following morning.
Lieutenant Thomas C. Hammond, together with a Californio deserter, Rafael Machado, and a detachment of six dragoon
Dragoon
The word dragoon originally meant mounted infantry, who were trained in horse riding as well as infantry fighting skills. However, usage altered over time and during the 18th century, dragoons evolved into conventional light cavalry units and personnel...
s (light cavalry
Light cavalry
Light cavalry refers to lightly armed and lightly armored troops mounted on horses, as opposed to heavy cavalry, where the riders are heavily armored...
)—one report says three dragoons and still another eleven—were ordered to scout Pico's position, which was located in a small Indian village in San Pasqual Valley. Hammond's scouting party was discovered by Captain Leonardo Cota
Leonardo Cota
Leonardo Cota was a Captain with the Californios in the Mexican-American War; and later a Los Angeles County Supervisor.-Leonardo Cota:...
and some of his Californio Mexican lancers, while they were training in the valley below. The element of surprise was lost. At midnight Kearny ordered an immediate advance. It had rained that night. Men, muskets, pistols and equipment were wet and cold, but the troops after over six months without any action were eager to engage the Californios. Early in the morning of December 6, 1846, the column proceeded by twos across the ridge between Santa Maria (present day Ramona, California
Ramona, California
Ramona is a census-designated place in San Diego County, California. The population was 20,292 at the 2010 census.The term Ramona also refers to an unincorporated community that includes both the Ramona CDP and the adjacent CDP of San Diego Country Estates CDP...
) and San Pasqual. During the descent, while it was still dark and with a low lying fog, Kearny's force became strung out, and were caught in a disadvantageous position by General Pico's swift advance.
Battle
Accounts differ as to what command was given and by whom; however, Captain Abraham R. Johnson is thought to have prematurely initiated action. According to Sides, Kearny ordered "Trot!" which Johnston at the front of the column misunderstood and repeated as "Charge!". Kearny's force at that time was three quarters of a mile (1.2 km) from Pico's encampment. About forty of the best mounted officers and men got far ahead of the main body of the force. The mules pulling Kearny's howitzers bolted, taking one of the guns with them. Pico's force was already mounted and easily managed to remain ahead of the pursuing Americans on their weary mules. Their fresh horses and superior horsemanship made it easy for them to manoeuvre as they wished, and they led the advance group of Americans even farther away from their main force. The Americans did not know the terrain and the Californios did. A second separation developed until about twenty-eight Americans including Kearny were in the forefront of the charge. Damp powder reduced the effectiveness of the American carbines and pistols, and they were soon reduced to relying on their sabers alone. The Californios were armed with a mixture of firearms, sabers, and long lances and reatas (braided rawhide lariatLasso
A lasso , also referred to as a lariat, riata, or reata , is a loop of rope that is designed to be thrown around a target and tighten when pulled. It is a well-known tool of the American cowboy. The word is also a verb; to lasso is to successfully throw the loop of rope around something...
) which they used with great effect.
As the leading element of the American attack drew close to a Kumeyaay
Kumeyaay
The Kumeyaay, also known as Tipai-Ipai, Kamia, or formerly Diegueño, are Native American people of the extreme southwestern United States and northwest Mexico. They live in the states of California in the US and Baja California in Mexico. In Spanish, the name is commonly spelled...
village, the Californios wheeled back and fired their few firearms. One of their first shots killed Captain Johnston, but the Americans continued on and returned fire. The Californios retreated, and the Americans pursued. Captain Benjamin D. Moore ordered a second charge. This increased the distance between the American elements and further reduced the size of the leading element. When the Californios reversed, they were able to confront Captain Moore and his forces alone. He was quickly surrounded and killed. Other Americans caught up with the action, but their weapons misfired and many of them were wounded or killed by Californios using lances. Some were pulled from their horses by the Californios' lariats and then lanced. Mounted on mules, the Americans were particularly vulnerable because of the mules' noted reluctance to wheel. The better mounted Californios easily outflanked the Americans and picked them off with the long lances. The two howitzers the U.S. troops brought to the scene were not unlimbered in time to take part in the action.
Both Captain Gillespie and General Kearny were seriously wounded in the battle, and several of the other officers were killed or wounded. Captain Henry Turner temporarily took command and organized a defensive position, which permitted the rest of the command to catch up with the battered lead. Dr John S. Griffin, Kearny's surgeon, reported that the Americans had lost 17 killed and 18 wounded out of the 50 officers and men who engaged the enemy. They buried the dead in a mass grave. Pico's forces suffered fewer casualties; some accounts state 2 killed and 12 wounded, whereas American witnesses claim a half dozen fatalities.
The next day, December 7, 1846, Kearny and his battered column continued its march towards San Diego. Californio lancers established a blocking position near what is now known as "Mule Hill". General Kearny ordered Lieutenant William H. Emory
William H. Emory
William Hemsley Emory was an United States Army officer and surveyor of Texas.-Early life and career:...
and a squad of dragoons to engage and drive off the menacing lancers. The dragoons easily forced the lancers away now having dry powder in their carbines while inflicting five dead before among the fleeing Californios. That evening Kearny again established a strong defensive perimeter and then sent Kit Carson, Edward Beale
Edward Fitzgerald Beale
Edward Fitzgerald "Ned" Beale was a national figure in 19th century America. He was naval officer, military general, explorer, frontiersman, Indian affairs superintendent, California rancher, diplomat, and friend of Kit Carson, Buffalo Bill Cody and Ulysses S. Grant...
and a young Indian guide for reinforcements from the American fleet anchored in San Diego Bay
San Diego Bay
San Diego Bay is a natural harbor and deepwater port adjacent to San Diego, California. It is 12 mi/19 km long, 1 mi/1.6 km–3 mi/4.8 km wide...
. Under the cover of darkness, Carson and his team reached the American fleet. The US forces traveled to San Diego and united with the American fleet there. Together they were able to "drive" Californio forces (who had previously abandoned the skirmish) out of San Diego.
Aftermath
General Kearny's official report states:“On the morning of the 7th, having made ambulancse for our wounded . . . we proceeded on our march, when the enemy showed himself, occupying the hills in our front, which they left as we approached, till reaching San Bernardo a party of them took possession of a hill near to it and maintained their position until attacked by our advance, who quickly drove them from it, killing and wounding five of their number with no loss on our part.” (Cooke, 259)
Kearny sent dispatches carried by Lieutenant Beale and Kit Carson requesting urgent reinforcements to Commodore Stockton, who was headquartered at San Diego, 28 miles (45 km) to the south-southwest. Stockton quickly dispatched a unit of over 200 sailors and Marines, whose arrival caused the Californios to disperse. Kearny had already determined the night before (December 9) to continue the march the next morning, when the new forces arrived and then escorted Kearny's battered troops to San Diego, where they arrived December 12.
Some time after the battle, General Kearny wrote that the US had achieved victory since the Californios had "fled the field", but, his was not a highly shared view. Officers of the United States Navy viewed the battle as a defeat of the U.S. Army, while the Californios saw the engagement as a victory. To this day, who won is disputed.
During the late 19th and early 20th century, historians debated which force won or lost the battle. Clearly, Kearny retained the battle area, the ability to operate and maneuver, and also the initiative, though his losses were higher. The victor of the battle is still debated. The battle is also unique in that it is one of the few military battles in the United States that involved elements of the Army, Navy, Marines, and civilian volunteers, all in the same skirmish.
Legacy
- Kearny MesaKearny Mesa-External links:***...
, an area of San Diego, was later named after the US general. - Kit Carson Park on the south side of EscondidoEscondido, CaliforniaEscondido is a city occupying a shallow valley ringed by rocky hills, just north of the city of San Diego, California. Founded in 1888, it is one of the oldest cities in San Diego County. The city had a population of 143,911 at the 2010 census. Its municipal government set itself an operating...
was named in his honor. - Beale Air Force BaseBeale Air Force BaseBeale Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located approximately east of Marysville, California. Originally known as Camp Beale....
in Marysville, CaliforniaMarysville, CaliforniaMarysville is the county seat of Yuba County, California, United States. The population was 12,072 at the 2010 census, down from 12,268 at the 2000 census. It is included in the Yuba City Metropolitan Statistical Area, often referred to as the Yuba-Sutter Area after the two counties, Yuba and...
is named after Edward Beale. - Camp Gillespie, completed in 1942 during World War II, was named in honor of Lieutenant Archibald Gillespie. In 1944 the federal government transferred the property to the County of San Diego. It rechristened the facility as Gillespie FieldGillespie FieldGillespie Field is a county-owned public-use airport located 10 miles northeast of the central business district of San Diego, in El Cajon, San Diego County, California, United States....
, since used as a municipal airport. - Captain Benjamin D. Moore, who was killed from battle wounds, was honored by the dedication and naming of Fort MooreFort MooreFort Moore was an historic U.S. Military Fort in Los Angeles, California, during the Mexican-American War. Its approximate location was at what is now the Hollywood Freeway near the intersection of North Hill Street and West Cesar Chavez Avenue, downtown....
in downtown Los Angeles, CaliforniaLos Angeles, CaliforniaLos Angeles , with a population at the 2010 United States Census of 3,792,621, is the most populous city in California, USA and the second most populous in the United States, after New York City. It has an area of , and is located in Southern California...
. The Fort Moore Hill Pioneer Memorial further honors Moore and other American pioneers. - The site of the battle is commemorated as San Pasqual Battlefield State Historic ParkSan Pasqual Battlefield State Historic ParkSan Pasqual Battlefield State Historic Park honors the soldiers who fought in the 1846 Battle of San Pasqual, the bloodiest battle in California during the Mexican-American War...
, a site on the National Register of Historic PlacesNational Register of Historic PlacesThe National Register of Historic Places is the United States government's official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation...
.
See also
- List of conflicts in the United States
- Battles of the Mexican-American WarBattles of the Mexican-American WarThe battles of the Mexican–American War include all major engagements and most reported skirmishes, including Thornton's Defeat, the Battle of Palo Alto, and the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, which took place prior to the official start of hostilities....
- History of San Diego
- Pauma MassacrePauma MassacreThe Pauma Massacre occurred in December 1846, north of Escondido, California. Luiseño Indians killed eleven Mexicans, Californio lancers who had stolen horses from them...
- Temecula MassacreTemecula MassacreThe Temecula Massacre took place in December 1846 east of present-day Temecula, California. It was part of a series of related events in the Mexican-American War. A combined force of Californio militia and Cahuilla Indians attacked and killed an estimated 33-40 Luiseño Indians...
External Links
- Deceño del paraje de Sn. Pascual inclusive el rincon del mismo nombre at The Bancroft Library
Further reading
- Coy, Owen C., PhD, "The Battle of San Pasqual," Sacramento: California State Printing Office, 1921.
- Dunne, William B. Notes on the Battle of San Pascual (Berkeley: Bancroft Library)
- Executive Document Number 1, accompanying the President's message at the Second Session of the 30th Congress, December, 1848, including the Report of Commodore Stockton.
- Jones, Sally Cavell, The Battle of San Pascual (Masters Thesis, USD, 1973)