Battle of Memphis
Encyclopedia
The First Battle of Memphis was a naval battle
fought on the Mississippi River
immediately above the city of Memphis on June 6, 1862, during the American Civil War
. The engagement was witnessed by many of the citizens of Memphis. It resulted in a crushing defeat for the Rebels, and marked the virtual eradication of a Confederate naval presence on the river. Despite the lopsided outcome, the Union Army failed to grasp its strategic significance. Its primary historical importance is that it was the last time civilians with no prior military experience were permitted to command ships in combat. As such, it is a milestone in the development of professionalism in the United States Navy.
The Confederate rams were distinguished by a unique feature of their defense against enemy shot. Their engines and other interior spaces were protected by a double bulkhead of heavy timbers, covered on the outer surface by a layer of railroad iron. The gap between the bulkheads, a space of 22 in (55.9 cm), was packed with cotton. Although the cotton was the least important part of the armor, it caught the public's attention, and the boats came to be called "cottonclads". (Later in the war, ships' crews were often protected from small-arms fire by bales of cotton placed in exposed positions, and these vessels were also referred to as cottonclads. They differed, however, from the originals of the category.)
The Federal force consisted of five gunboats, four of which were known semi-officially as 'Eads gunboats,' after their builder, James Buchanan Eads
, but more commonly as 'Pook Turtles', after their designer, Samuel M. Pook
, and their strange appearance. The fifth gunboat, flagship , was also a product of the Eads shipyards, but was converted from a civilian craft. Each of these vessels carried 13-16 guns. The other four vessels were rams, with no armament whatever, aside from small arms carried by the officers. All of the rams had been converted from civilian riverboats, and had no common design.
, who reported to Major General
Henry W. Halleck. The gunboats were thus a part of the United States Army, although their officers were supplied by the Navy. The rams were led by Colonel
Charles Ellet, Jr.
, who reported directly to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. Thus the Federal 'fleet' consisted of two independent organizations, with no common command outside of Washington.
The Confederate arrangement was even worse. The cottonclads were about half of a group of 14 river steamers that had been seized at New Orleans and converted into rams to defend that city. Known as the "River Defense Fleet
", it was split in two when the Confederate holdings on the river became threatened from both the north and the Gulf of Mexico. Six were retained below New Orleans to face the fleet of David G. Farragut
, while eight were sent up to Memphis to block the Federal descent down the river. (Sending them this far north did not violate their original purpose, as Memphis was regarded as a shield for New Orleans.) The northern (Memphis) section was commanded overall by James E. Montgomery, a riverboat captain in civilian life. The other boats were also commanded by former civilian riverboat captains, selected by Montgomery, and with no military training. Once under way, Montgomery's command ceased, and the rams operated independently. The futility of this arrangement was recognized immediately by military men, but their protests were disregarded. Furthermore, the captains would not either learn how to handle the guns themselves, nor assign crew members to the task, so gun crews had to be drawn from the Confederate Army. The gunners were not integrated into the crews, but remained subject to the orders of their army officers.
As a result of the Federal victory at Corinth, the railroads that linked Memphis with the eastern part of the Confederacy had been cut, severely reducing the strategic importance of the city. Therefore, in early June Memphis and its nearby forts were abandoned by the Rebel army. Most of the garrison were sent to join units elsewhere, including Vicksburg, and only a small rear guard was left to make a token resistance. The River Defense Fleet would also have retreated to Vicksburg, but it could not get enough coal in Memphis. Unable to flee when the Federal fleet appeared on June 6, Montgomery and his captains had to decide whether to fight or scuttle their boats. They chose to fight, steaming out in the early morning to meet the advancing flotilla and the rams trailing behind it.
The battle started with an exchange of gunfire at long range, the Federal gunboats setting up a line of battle across the river and firing their stern guns at the cottonclads coming up to meet them. Two of the four rams advanced beyond the line of the gunboats and rammed or otherwise disrupted the movements of their opponents; the other rams misinterpreted their orders and did not enter the battle at all. With the Federal rams and gunboats not coordinating their movements and the Confederate vessels operating independently, the battle soon was reduced to a melee. It is agreed by all that the ram flagship, , drew first blood by ramming CSS Colonel Lovell
. She was then rammed in turn by one or more of the remaining cottonclads. Col. Ellet was at this time wounded by a pistol shot in his knee, thereby becoming the only casualty on the Union side. (In the hospital, he contracted measles, the childhood disease that killed some 5,000 soldiers during the war. The combination of the disease and the debilitation caused by his wound was too great, and he died on June 21.) The remainder of the battle is obscured by more than the fog of war. Several eyewitness accounts are available; unfortunately, they are mutually contradictory to a greater degree than usual. All that is certain is that at the end of the battle, all but one of the cottonclads were either destroyed or captured, and one Yankee boat, Queen of the West, was disabled. The sole boat to escape, CSS General Earl Van Dorn
, fled to the protection of the Yazoo River, just north of Vicksburg. Personnel losses among the Confederates cannot be estimated reliably.
, the final challenge to the Federal thrust down the Mississippi River against Vicksburg. The river was now open down to that city, which was already besieged by Farragut's ships, but the Federal Army authorities did not grasp the strategic importance of the fact for nearly another six months. Not until November would the Union Army under Ulysses S. Grant
attempt to complete the opening of the river.
The poor performance of the River Defense Fleet, both at Memphis and at the earlier Battle of New Orleans, was the final demonstration that naval operations had to be commanded by trained professionals subject to military discipline. The Ellet Rams remained in the Federal service, but they had no opportunity for combat of the sort for which they were intended. They were soon transformed to an amphibious raiding body, the Mississippi Marine Brigade
(with no connection to the United States Marine Corps), led by Col. Ellet's brother, Lieutenant Colonel
(later Brigadier General
) Alfred W. Ellet
. The demand for increased professionalism has also resulted in the elimination of privateering, although the River Defense Fleet was not composed of privateers in the usual meaning of the term.
The battle remains a cautionary tale
, demonstrating the ill effects of poor command structure. It is also interesting in that it is one of only two purely naval battles of the war, excluding single-ship actions, and took place 500 mi (804.7 km) from the nearest open water. (The other was the Battle of Plum Point Bend, also on the Mississippi.)
Another Civil War military engagement also took place in Memphis, the Second Battle of Memphis
in April 1864, when Confederate General
Nathan Bedford Forrest
led a nighttime cavalry
raid on his hometown of Memphis with the intent of freeing Confederate prisoners and capturing Union generals encamped in Memphis. The raid failed in both goals, but forced the Union Army to guard the area more diligently.
Naval battle
A naval battle is a battle fought using boats, ships or other waterborne vessels. Most naval battles have occurred at sea, but a few have taken place on lakes or rivers. The earliest recorded naval battle took place in 1210 BC near Cyprus...
fought on the Mississippi River
Mississippi River
The Mississippi River is the largest river system in North America. Flowing entirely in the United States, this river rises in western Minnesota and meanders slowly southwards for to the Mississippi River Delta at the Gulf of Mexico. With its many tributaries, the Mississippi's watershed drains...
immediately above the city of Memphis on June 6, 1862, during the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
. The engagement was witnessed by many of the citizens of Memphis. It resulted in a crushing defeat for the Rebels, and marked the virtual eradication of a Confederate naval presence on the river. Despite the lopsided outcome, the Union Army failed to grasp its strategic significance. Its primary historical importance is that it was the last time civilians with no prior military experience were permitted to command ships in combat. As such, it is a milestone in the development of professionalism in the United States Navy.
Background
The defending Confederates closely matched the advancing Federal force in raw numbers, with eight Rebel vessels opposing nine Union gunboats and rams, but the fighting qualities of the former were far inferior. Each was armed with only one or two guns, of a light caliber that would be ineffective against the armor of the gunboats. The primary weapon of each was its reinforced prow, which was intended to be used in ramming opponents.The Confederate rams were distinguished by a unique feature of their defense against enemy shot. Their engines and other interior spaces were protected by a double bulkhead of heavy timbers, covered on the outer surface by a layer of railroad iron. The gap between the bulkheads, a space of 22 in (55.9 cm), was packed with cotton. Although the cotton was the least important part of the armor, it caught the public's attention, and the boats came to be called "cottonclads". (Later in the war, ships' crews were often protected from small-arms fire by bales of cotton placed in exposed positions, and these vessels were also referred to as cottonclads. They differed, however, from the originals of the category.)
The Federal force consisted of five gunboats, four of which were known semi-officially as 'Eads gunboats,' after their builder, James Buchanan Eads
James Buchanan Eads
Captain James Buchanan Eads was a world-renowned American civil engineer and inventor, holding more than fifty patents.-Early life and education:...
, but more commonly as 'Pook Turtles', after their designer, Samuel M. Pook
Samuel M. Pook
Samuel Moore Pook was a Boston-based American naval architect and father of Samuel Hartt Pook, the noted clipper ship naval architect. In 1861, at the outbreak of the American Civil War, he designed the City class ironclads for James B. Eads...
, and their strange appearance. The fifth gunboat, flagship , was also a product of the Eads shipyards, but was converted from a civilian craft. Each of these vessels carried 13-16 guns. The other four vessels were rams, with no armament whatever, aside from small arms carried by the officers. All of the rams had been converted from civilian riverboats, and had no common design.
Organization
Both sides entered the battle with faulty command structures. The Federal gunboats were members of the Western Gunboat Flotilla, commanded directly by Flag Officer Charles H. DavisCharles Henry Davis
Charles Henry Davis was a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy, serving primarily during the American Civil War, and with the United States Coast Survey.-Early life and career:...
, who reported to Major General
Major general (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, major general is a two-star general-officer rank, with the pay grade of O-8. Major general ranks above brigadier general and below lieutenant general...
Henry W. Halleck. The gunboats were thus a part of the United States Army, although their officers were supplied by the Navy. The rams were led by Colonel
Colonel (United States)
In the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, colonel is a senior field grade military officer rank just above the rank of lieutenant colonel and just below the rank of brigadier general...
Charles Ellet, Jr.
Charles Ellet, Jr.
Charles Ellet, Jr. was a civil engineer and a colonel during the American Civil War, mortally wounded at the Battle of Memphis.-Biography:Ellet was born in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, brother of Alfred W...
, who reported directly to Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. Thus the Federal 'fleet' consisted of two independent organizations, with no common command outside of Washington.
The Confederate arrangement was even worse. The cottonclads were about half of a group of 14 river steamers that had been seized at New Orleans and converted into rams to defend that city. Known as the "River Defense Fleet
River Defense Fleet
The River Defense Fleet was a set of fourteen vessels in Confederate service, intended to assist in the defense of New Orleans in the early days of the American Civil War...
", it was split in two when the Confederate holdings on the river became threatened from both the north and the Gulf of Mexico. Six were retained below New Orleans to face the fleet of David G. Farragut
David Farragut
David Glasgow Farragut was a flag officer of the United States Navy during the American Civil War. He was the first rear admiral, vice admiral, and admiral in the United States Navy. He is remembered in popular culture for his order at the Battle of Mobile Bay, usually paraphrased: "Damn the...
, while eight were sent up to Memphis to block the Federal descent down the river. (Sending them this far north did not violate their original purpose, as Memphis was regarded as a shield for New Orleans.) The northern (Memphis) section was commanded overall by James E. Montgomery, a riverboat captain in civilian life. The other boats were also commanded by former civilian riverboat captains, selected by Montgomery, and with no military training. Once under way, Montgomery's command ceased, and the rams operated independently. The futility of this arrangement was recognized immediately by military men, but their protests were disregarded. Furthermore, the captains would not either learn how to handle the guns themselves, nor assign crew members to the task, so gun crews had to be drawn from the Confederate Army. The gunners were not integrated into the crews, but remained subject to the orders of their army officers.
Battle
The battle started with an exchange of gunfire at long range, the Federal gunboats setting up a line of battle across the river and firing their stern guns at the cottonclads coming up to meet them. Two of the four rams advanced beyond the line of the gunboats and rammed or otherwise disrupted the movements of their opponents; the other rams misinterpreted their orders and did not enter the battle at all. With the Federal rams and gunboats not coordinating their movements and the Confederate vessels operating independently, the battle soon was reduced to a melee. It is agreed by all that the ram flagship, , drew first blood by ramming CSS Colonel Lovell
CSS Colonel Lovell
CSS Colonel Lovell was a cotton-clad ram of the Confederate States Navy during the American Civil War-Service history:The ship was built in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1843, as Hercules, and was owned by the Ocean Towing Co. of New Orleans...
. She was then rammed in turn by one or more of the remaining cottonclads. Col. Ellet was at this time wounded by a pistol shot in his knee, thereby becoming the only casualty on the Union side. (In the hospital, he contracted measles, the childhood disease that killed some 5,000 soldiers during the war. The combination of the disease and the debilitation caused by his wound was too great, and he died on June 21.) The remainder of the battle is obscured by more than the fog of war. Several eyewitness accounts are available; unfortunately, they are mutually contradictory to a greater degree than usual. All that is certain is that at the end of the battle, all but one of the cottonclads were either destroyed or captured, and one Yankee boat, Queen of the West, was disabled. The sole boat to escape, CSS General Earl Van Dorn
CSS General Earl Van Dorn
The CSS General Earl Van Dorn, a side-wheel river steamer, was fitted out in early 1862 at New Orleans, Louisiana as a River Defense Fleet "cottonclad" ram....
, fled to the protection of the Yazoo River, just north of Vicksburg. Personnel losses among the Confederates cannot be estimated reliably.
Results
The battle of Memphis was, aside from the later appearance of the ironclad CSS ArkansasCSS Arkansas
The CSS Arkansas was a Confederate Ironclad warship during the American Civil War. Serving in the Western Theater, the vessel ran through a U.S. Navy fleet at Vicksburg, Mississippi, on 15 July 1862, in a celebrated action in which she inflicted more damage than she received...
, the final challenge to the Federal thrust down the Mississippi River against Vicksburg. The river was now open down to that city, which was already besieged by Farragut's ships, but the Federal Army authorities did not grasp the strategic importance of the fact for nearly another six months. Not until November would the Union Army under Ulysses S. Grant
Ulysses S. Grant
Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States as well as military commander during the Civil War and post-war Reconstruction periods. Under Grant's command, the Union Army defeated the Confederate military and ended the Confederate States of America...
attempt to complete the opening of the river.
The poor performance of the River Defense Fleet, both at Memphis and at the earlier Battle of New Orleans, was the final demonstration that naval operations had to be commanded by trained professionals subject to military discipline. The Ellet Rams remained in the Federal service, but they had no opportunity for combat of the sort for which they were intended. They were soon transformed to an amphibious raiding body, the Mississippi Marine Brigade
Mississippi Marine Brigade
The Mississippi Marine Brigade was a Union Army unit raised during the American Civil War as part of the United States Ram Fleet. These soldiers acted as Marines aboard United States Army rams patrolling the Mississippi River...
(with no connection to the United States Marine Corps), led by Col. Ellet's brother, Lieutenant Colonel
Lieutenant Colonel (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Marine Corps, a lieutenant colonel is a field grade military officer rank just above the rank of major and just below the rank of colonel. It is equivalent to the naval rank of commander in the other uniformed services.The pay...
(later Brigadier General
Brigadier general (United States)
A brigadier general in the United States Army, Air Force, and Marine Corps, is a one-star general officer, with the pay grade of O-7. Brigadier general ranks above a colonel and below major general. Brigadier general is equivalent to the rank of rear admiral in the other uniformed...
) Alfred W. Ellet
Alfred W. Ellet
Alfred Washington Ellet was a civil engineer and a brigadier general in the Union Army who commanded the United States Ram Fleet during the American Civil War.-Biography:...
. The demand for increased professionalism has also resulted in the elimination of privateering, although the River Defense Fleet was not composed of privateers in the usual meaning of the term.
The battle remains a cautionary tale
Cautionary tale
A cautionary tale is a tale told in folklore, to warn its hearer of a danger. There are three essential parts to a cautionary tale, though they can be introduced in a large variety of ways. First, a taboo or prohibition is stated: some act, location, or thing is said to be dangerous. Then, the...
, demonstrating the ill effects of poor command structure. It is also interesting in that it is one of only two purely naval battles of the war, excluding single-ship actions, and took place 500 mi (804.7 km) from the nearest open water. (The other was the Battle of Plum Point Bend, also on the Mississippi.)
Another Civil War military engagement also took place in Memphis, the Second Battle of Memphis
Second Battle of Memphis
The Second Battle of Memphis was a battle of the American Civil War occurring on August 21, 1864, in Shelby County, Tennessee.At 4:00 a.m. on August 21, 1864, Maj. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest made a daring raid on Union-held Memphis, Tennessee, but it was not an attempt to capture the city, which...
in April 1864, when Confederate General
General (United States)
In the United States Army, United States Air Force, and United States Marine Corps, general is a four-star general officer rank, with the pay grade of O-10. General ranks above lieutenant general and below General of the Army or General of the Air Force; the Marine Corps does not have an...
Nathan Bedford Forrest
Nathan Bedford Forrest
Nathan Bedford Forrest was a lieutenant general in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War. He is remembered both as a self-educated, innovative cavalry leader during the war and as a leading southern advocate in the postwar years...
led a nighttime cavalry
Cavalry
Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the third oldest and the most mobile of the combat arms...
raid on his hometown of Memphis with the intent of freeing Confederate prisoners and capturing Union generals encamped in Memphis. The raid failed in both goals, but forced the Union Army to guard the area more diligently.
See also
- Mississippi River SquadronMississippi River SquadronThe Mississippi River Squadron was the Union naval squadron that operated on the western rivers during the American Civil War. It was initially created as a part of the Union Army, although it was commanded by naval officers, and was then known as the Western Gunboat Flotilla and sometimes as the...
- United States Ram FleetUnited States Ram FleetThe United States Ram Fleet was a small group of rams on the Mississippi River during the American Civil War.-Formation:In March 1862, the U.S. Army authorized the noted civil engineer Charles Ellet, Jr., to establish a flotilla of steam rams for employment on the Western Rivers. Ellet converted...
- Battle of Memphis - National Underwater and Marine Agency
Further reading
- National Park Service battle description
- CWSAC Report Update
- Anderson, Bern. By sea and by river: the naval history of the Civil War. New York: Da Capo Press, 1962.
- Hearn, Chester G. Ellet's Brigade: the strangest outfit of all. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2000.
- Johnson, Robert Underwood, and Buel, Clarence Clough, eds. Battles and leaders of the Civil War. Secaucus, New Jersey, n.d.; reprint ed., New York: Century, 1887, 1888.
- Luraghi, Raimondo.A history of the Confederate Navy (translated by Paolo E. Coletta). Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1996.
- Musicant, Ivan. Divided waters: the naval history of the Civil War. New York: HarperCollins, 1995.
- Robinson, William Morrison Jr. The Confederate privateers. Yale University, 1928. Reprint, Univ. of South Carolina, 1990.
- Scharf, J. Thomas. History of the Confederate States Navy from its organization to the surrender of its last vessel. New York: Gramercy, 1996; reprint ed., New York: Rogers and Sherwood, 1887.