Battle of Jaffa
Encyclopedia
The Battle of Jaffa took place during the Crusades
, as one of a series of campaigns between Saladin
's army and the forces of King Richard the Lionheart
. It was the final battle of the Third Crusade
, after which Saladin and King Richard were able to negotiate a truce. Although the Crusaders did not regain possession of Jerusalem, Christian
pilgrims were permitted entry into the city, and the Crusaders were able to retain control of a sizable strip of land stretching from Beirut
to Jaffa.
Although largely a footnote among the greater events that unfolded during the Crusades, the battle was a decisive encounter, illustrating both the determined spirit of Saladin and the bravery of Richard. It was the final encounter before the treaty between Richard and Saladin was concluded and helped anchor the Crusader presence in the south, and ensure, at least for the time being, the perimeter of the Christian realm in the Holy Land.
, the Crusader
army proceeded from Arsuf
to Jaffa
, which the Crusaders took and fortified. Jaffa, they hoped, would be the base of operations in a drive to reconquer Jerusalem itself. As the winter of 1191–1192 approached, active campaigning was abandoned and further sporadic negotiations between Richard the Lionheart
and Saladin
were taken up, though without any immediate result. During the winter months, Richard's men occupied and refortified Ascalon
, whose fortifications had earlier been razed by Saladin. The spring of 1192 saw continued negotiations and further skirmishing between the opposing forces. During this period, Richard began to receive disturbing news of the activities of his brother John and Philip Augustus. As the spring gave way to summer, it became evident that Richard would have to return soon to England
to safeguard his own interests there.
. Having realized that Jerusalem would not be defensible, he began the retreat of Crusader forces from hostile territory. Almost immediately after Richard's withdrawal, Saladin, still smarting from his reason defeat at Arsuf, saw a chance for revenge and laid siege
to the town of Jaffa which had served as a base of operations for Richard during his previous march inland towards Jerusalem. The defending garrison, although taken by surprise, fought with fanatical bravery before the odds against them proved too great and Jaffa yielded. Saladin's soldiers successfully stormed the walls after three days of bloody clashes; only Jaffa's citadel
held out and the remaining Crusaders managed to send word of their plight. Richard gathered a small army of troops, including a large number of Italian sailors, and began his journey south towards the settlement. Upon seeing Muslim
banners flying from the walls, he falsely believed the town to be a lost cause, until a defender swam out to his flagship and informed him of the citadel's dire situation.
Still in his sailor's deck shoes, Richard leaped recklessly into the sea and waded through the waves to reach the beach. The King again showed his bravery and worth on the field, leading fifty-four knights, a few hundred infantrymen, and about 2,000 Genoese
and Pisa
n crossbow
men into battle. The Muslim army began to panic at the sudden offensive by Richard's arriving force; they feared it was but a spearhead of a much larger army coming to relieve Jaffa. The latter fought in person at the spearhead of his attack, and Saladin's men were routed. Many of the Christian prisoners who had surrendered earlier also seized their arms and resumed combat, for their captors were in such disarray that they were unable to stop them. Saladin's fleeing army spilled out of Jaffa and escaped in a disorderly manner; their own sultan was unable to regroup his forces until over they had retreated five miles away.
When Saladin received reports that more of the Franks were coming down from Caesarea, he opted to launch a counterattack on Jaffa to recapture it before these additional reinforcements could arrive. On the early morning of August 4, Muslim troops amassed around the walled town, concealing themselves in the fields and intending to attack at dawn the next day. Just before sunrise, however, an Italian soldier out for a stroll discerned the hidden enemy; the neighing of horses and glinting of armor only served to confirm his suspicions. The sentries promptly raised the alarm, and Richard quickly assembled his knights and bowmen for battle. He ordered his infantry to form a phalanx of spears by driving their shields and the shaft of their spears into the ground, pointed towards the direction of their opponents. Longbowmen and crossbowmen alike were to mingle behind their protective wall and hit the Muslims with a volley of arrows as they drew close.
The 7,000 lightly armored Egyptian and Bedouin cavalry who attacked Richard's foot soldiers were driven back with heavy losses; the spear formation penetrated their clothing as though they were made of eggshell. In addition, the Christians seemed to have better armor than those of the Saracens, allowing them to risk their persons boldly. After a few hours' onslaught, however, both sides began to tire. As Muslim horsemen prepared to reform and attack again, the long line of English archers stepped forward and cut them down with a fresh hail of arrows. Greatly weakened by this barrage, Saladin's cavalry were subsequently crushed by a charge of knights led by the King himself. Fighting was intense and the brave monarch's horse was felled beneath him. When Saladin saw Richard fighting on foot, so impressed was he at his enemy's courage that he ordered two stallions from his own stables to be dispatched as a replacement.
While the battle raged on, a few of the Saracens were able to outflank the Crusader army and enter Jaffa. The Genoese marines who had been entrusted to remain behind and guard the gates offered little resistance before retreating to their ships. Before the Muslims could exploit their success, however, Richard himself galloped into the town and rallied all of its fighting men. By evening, it had become clear to Saladin that his men had been soundly defeated and he gave the order to withdraw. Leaving their dead on the field, the Ayyubid force began a long, weary, march back to Jerusalem.
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars, blessed by the Pope and the Catholic Church with the main goal of restoring Christian access to the holy places in and near Jerusalem...
, as one of a series of campaigns between Saladin
Saladin
Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb , better known in the Western world as Saladin, was an Arabized Kurdish Muslim, who became the first Sultan of Egypt and Syria, and founded the Ayyubid dynasty. He led Muslim and Arab opposition to the Franks and other European Crusaders in the Levant...
's army and the forces of King Richard the Lionheart
Richard I of England
Richard I was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Count of Nantes, and Overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period...
. It was the final battle of the Third Crusade
Third Crusade
The Third Crusade , also known as the Kings' Crusade, was an attempt by European leaders to reconquer the Holy Land from Saladin...
, after which Saladin and King Richard were able to negotiate a truce. Although the Crusaders did not regain possession of Jerusalem, Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
pilgrims were permitted entry into the city, and the Crusaders were able to retain control of a sizable strip of land stretching from Beirut
Beirut
Beirut is the capital and largest city of Lebanon, with a population ranging from 1 million to more than 2 million . Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon's Mediterranean coastline, it serves as the country's largest and main seaport, and also forms the Beirut Metropolitan...
to Jaffa.
Although largely a footnote among the greater events that unfolded during the Crusades, the battle was a decisive encounter, illustrating both the determined spirit of Saladin and the bravery of Richard. It was the final encounter before the treaty between Richard and Saladin was concluded and helped anchor the Crusader presence in the south, and ensure, at least for the time being, the perimeter of the Christian realm in the Holy Land.
Prelude
On September 7, 1191, after the Battle of ArsufBattle of Arsuf
The Battle of Arsuf was a battle of the Third Crusade in which Richard I of England defeated Saladin at Arsuf. Following a series of harassing attacks by Saladin's forces, battle was joined on the morning of 7 September 1191...
, the Crusader
Crusades
The Crusades were a series of religious wars, blessed by the Pope and the Catholic Church with the main goal of restoring Christian access to the holy places in and near Jerusalem...
army proceeded from Arsuf
Arsuf
Arsuf also known as Arsur or Apollonia, was an ancient city and fortress located in Israel, about 15 kilometres north of modern Tel Aviv, on a cliff above the Mediterranean Sea. The city site, Tel Arsuf, was intensively excavated from 1994...
to Jaffa
Jaffa
Jaffa is an ancient port city believed to be one of the oldest in the world. Jaffa was incorporated with Tel Aviv creating the city of Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel. Jaffa is famous for its association with the biblical story of the prophet Jonah.-Etymology:...
, which the Crusaders took and fortified. Jaffa, they hoped, would be the base of operations in a drive to reconquer Jerusalem itself. As the winter of 1191–1192 approached, active campaigning was abandoned and further sporadic negotiations between Richard the Lionheart
Richard I of England
Richard I was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Count of Nantes, and Overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period...
and Saladin
Saladin
Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb , better known in the Western world as Saladin, was an Arabized Kurdish Muslim, who became the first Sultan of Egypt and Syria, and founded the Ayyubid dynasty. He led Muslim and Arab opposition to the Franks and other European Crusaders in the Levant...
were taken up, though without any immediate result. During the winter months, Richard's men occupied and refortified Ascalon
Ashkelon
Ashkelon is a coastal city in the South District of Israel on the Mediterranean coast, south of Tel Aviv, and north of the border with the Gaza Strip. The ancient seaport of Ashkelon dates back to the Neolithic Age...
, whose fortifications had earlier been razed by Saladin. The spring of 1192 saw continued negotiations and further skirmishing between the opposing forces. During this period, Richard began to receive disturbing news of the activities of his brother John and Philip Augustus. As the spring gave way to summer, it became evident that Richard would have to return soon to England
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
to safeguard his own interests there.
Battle
By July 5, 1192, Richard began his northward withdrawal from the Holy LandHoly Land
The Holy Land is a term which in Judaism refers to the Kingdom of Israel as defined in the Tanakh. For Jews, the Land's identifiction of being Holy is defined in Judaism by its differentiation from other lands by virtue of the practice of Judaism often possible only in the Land of Israel...
. Having realized that Jerusalem would not be defensible, he began the retreat of Crusader forces from hostile territory. Almost immediately after Richard's withdrawal, Saladin, still smarting from his reason defeat at Arsuf, saw a chance for revenge and laid siege
Siege
A siege is a military blockade of a city or fortress with the intent of conquering by attrition or assault. The term derives from sedere, Latin for "to sit". Generally speaking, siege warfare is a form of constant, low intensity conflict characterized by one party holding a strong, static...
to the town of Jaffa which had served as a base of operations for Richard during his previous march inland towards Jerusalem. The defending garrison, although taken by surprise, fought with fanatical bravery before the odds against them proved too great and Jaffa yielded. Saladin's soldiers successfully stormed the walls after three days of bloody clashes; only Jaffa's citadel
Citadel
A citadel is a fortress for protecting a town, sometimes incorporating a castle. The term derives from the same Latin root as the word "city", civis, meaning citizen....
held out and the remaining Crusaders managed to send word of their plight. Richard gathered a small army of troops, including a large number of Italian sailors, and began his journey south towards the settlement. Upon seeing Muslim
Muslim
A Muslim, also spelled Moslem, is an adherent of Islam, a monotheistic, Abrahamic religion based on the Quran, which Muslims consider the verbatim word of God as revealed to prophet Muhammad. "Muslim" is the Arabic term for "submitter" .Muslims believe that God is one and incomparable...
banners flying from the walls, he falsely believed the town to be a lost cause, until a defender swam out to his flagship and informed him of the citadel's dire situation.
Still in his sailor's deck shoes, Richard leaped recklessly into the sea and waded through the waves to reach the beach. The King again showed his bravery and worth on the field, leading fifty-four knights, a few hundred infantrymen, and about 2,000 Genoese
Genoa
Genoa |Ligurian]] Zena ; Latin and, archaically, English Genua) is a city and an important seaport in northern Italy, the capital of the Province of Genoa and of the region of Liguria....
and Pisa
Pisa
Pisa is a city in Tuscany, Central Italy, on the right bank of the mouth of the River Arno on the Tyrrhenian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa...
n crossbow
Crossbow
A crossbow is a weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles, often called bolts or quarrels. The medieval crossbow was called by many names, most of which derived from the word ballista, a torsion engine resembling a crossbow in appearance.Historically, crossbows played a...
men into battle. The Muslim army began to panic at the sudden offensive by Richard's arriving force; they feared it was but a spearhead of a much larger army coming to relieve Jaffa. The latter fought in person at the spearhead of his attack, and Saladin's men were routed. Many of the Christian prisoners who had surrendered earlier also seized their arms and resumed combat, for their captors were in such disarray that they were unable to stop them. Saladin's fleeing army spilled out of Jaffa and escaped in a disorderly manner; their own sultan was unable to regroup his forces until over they had retreated five miles away.
When Saladin received reports that more of the Franks were coming down from Caesarea, he opted to launch a counterattack on Jaffa to recapture it before these additional reinforcements could arrive. On the early morning of August 4, Muslim troops amassed around the walled town, concealing themselves in the fields and intending to attack at dawn the next day. Just before sunrise, however, an Italian soldier out for a stroll discerned the hidden enemy; the neighing of horses and glinting of armor only served to confirm his suspicions. The sentries promptly raised the alarm, and Richard quickly assembled his knights and bowmen for battle. He ordered his infantry to form a phalanx of spears by driving their shields and the shaft of their spears into the ground, pointed towards the direction of their opponents. Longbowmen and crossbowmen alike were to mingle behind their protective wall and hit the Muslims with a volley of arrows as they drew close.
The 7,000 lightly armored Egyptian and Bedouin cavalry who attacked Richard's foot soldiers were driven back with heavy losses; the spear formation penetrated their clothing as though they were made of eggshell. In addition, the Christians seemed to have better armor than those of the Saracens, allowing them to risk their persons boldly. After a few hours' onslaught, however, both sides began to tire. As Muslim horsemen prepared to reform and attack again, the long line of English archers stepped forward and cut them down with a fresh hail of arrows. Greatly weakened by this barrage, Saladin's cavalry were subsequently crushed by a charge of knights led by the King himself. Fighting was intense and the brave monarch's horse was felled beneath him. When Saladin saw Richard fighting on foot, so impressed was he at his enemy's courage that he ordered two stallions from his own stables to be dispatched as a replacement.
While the battle raged on, a few of the Saracens were able to outflank the Crusader army and enter Jaffa. The Genoese marines who had been entrusted to remain behind and guard the gates offered little resistance before retreating to their ships. Before the Muslims could exploit their success, however, Richard himself galloped into the town and rallied all of its fighting men. By evening, it had become clear to Saladin that his men had been soundly defeated and he gave the order to withdraw. Leaving their dead on the field, the Ayyubid force began a long, weary, march back to Jerusalem.