Babylonian star catalogues
Encyclopedia
Babylonian astronomy collated earlier observations and divinations into sets of Babylonian star catalogues, during and after the Kassite
rule over Babylonia
. These star catalogues, written in cuneiform
script, contained lists of constellations, individual stars, and planets. The constellations were probably collected from various other sources, the earliest catalogue, Three Stars Each mentions stars of Akkad, of Amurru
, of Elam
and others.
Various sources have theorized a Sumer
ian origin for these Babylonian constellations, but an Elamite origin has also been proposed. A connection to the star symbology of Kassite kudurru
border stones has also been claimed, but whether such kudurrus really represented constellations and astronomical information aside for the use of the symbols remains unclear.
Star catalogues after Three Stars Each include the MUL.APIN
list named after the first Babylonian constellation , "the Plough", which is the current Triangulum
constellation plus Gamma Andromedae
. It lists, among others, 17 or 18 constellations in the zodiac
. Later catalogues reduces the zodiacal set of constellations to 12, which were borrowed by the Egyptians
and the Greeks
, still surviving among the modern constellations.
signs (the Pleiades
are referred to as a "star cluster" or "star of stars" in the lists, written as MUL.MUL, or MULMUL).
, a pair of tablets named for their incipit, corresponding to the first constellation of the year, "The Plough", identified with Triangulum
plus Gamma Andromedae
. The list is a direct descendent of the Three Stars Each list, reworked around 1000 BC on the basis of more accurate observations. They include more constellations, including most circumpolar ones, and more of the zodiacal ones.
The Babylonian star catalogues entered Greek astronomy
in the 4th century BC, via Eudoxus of Cnidus
and others.
A few of the constellation names in use in modern astronomy can be traced to Babylonian sources via Greek astronomy. Among the most ancient constellations are those that marked the four cardinal points of the year in the Middle Bronze Age, i.e.
There are other constellation names which can be traced to Bronze Age origins, including Gemini
"The Twins", from MAŠ.TAB.BA.GAL.GAL "The Great Twins", Cancer
"The Crab", from AL.LUL "The Crayfish", among others.
The MUL.APIN
gives
consists of 17 or 18 stations, recognizable as the direct predecessor of the twelve-sign zodiac.
Note that the beginning of the list with MUL.MUL "Pleiades
" corresponds to the situation in the Early to Middle Bronze Age
when the Sun at vernal equinox was close to the Pleiades in Taurus
(closest in the 23rd century BC, the "Age of Taurus"), and not yet in Aries
as in the Iron Age (the "Age of Aries").
The "Tail of the Swallow" (Pisces) has also been read as two constellations, "The Tail" and "The Swallow", whence the uncertainty whether the "zodiac" consists of 17 or 18 constellations. All constellations of the Iron Age twelve-sign zodiac are present among them, most of them with names that clearly identify them, while some ("Furrow" for Virgo, Pabilsag for Sagittarius, "Great One" for Aquarius, "Swallow Tail" for Pisces and "Agrarian Worker" for Aries) reached Greek astronomy with altered names.
For Virgo, and for her main star Spica
, Babylonian precedents are present. The MUL.APIN associates Absin "The Furrow" with "the goddess Shala
's ear of corn", and Shala is conventionally depicted as holding an ear of corn on boundary stones of the Kassite
era.
Regarding Sagittarius, Pabilsag is a comparatively obscure Sumerian god, later identified with Ninurta
. Another name for the constellation was Nebu "The Soldier".
Aquarius "The Water-Pourer" represents Ea himself, dubbed "The Great One" in the MUL.APIN. It contained the winter solstice
in the Early Bronze Age. In the Greek tradition, he became represented as simply a single vase from which a stream pouredd down to Piscis Austrinus
. The name in the Hindu zodiac is likewise kumbha "water-pitcher", showing that the zodiac reached India via Greek intermediaries.
The current definition of Pisces
is the youngest of the zodiacal constellations. The "Swallow" of Babylonian astronomy was larger, including parts of Pegasus
. Late Babylonian sources mention DU.NU.NU "The Fish-Cord".
It is unclear how the "Agrarian Worker" of the MUL.APIN became Aries "The Ram" of Greek tradition, possibly via association with Dumuzi the Shepherd.
Kassites
The Kassites were an ancient Near Eastern people who gained control of Babylonia after the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire after ca. 1531 BC to ca. 1155 BC...
rule over Babylonia
Babylonia
Babylonia was an ancient cultural region in central-southern Mesopotamia , with Babylon as its capital. Babylonia emerged as a major power when Hammurabi Babylonia was an ancient cultural region in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), with Babylon as its capital. Babylonia emerged as...
. These star catalogues, written in cuneiform
Cuneiform
Cuneiform can refer to:*Cuneiform script, an ancient writing system originating in Mesopotamia in the 4th millennium BC*Cuneiform , three bones in the human foot*Cuneiform Records, a music record label...
script, contained lists of constellations, individual stars, and planets. The constellations were probably collected from various other sources, the earliest catalogue, Three Stars Each mentions stars of Akkad, of Amurru
Amorite
Amorite refers to an ancient Semitic people who occupied large parts of Mesopotamia from the 21st Century BC...
, of Elam
Elam
Elam was an ancient civilization located in what is now southwest Iran. Elam was centered in the far west and the southwest of modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of Khuzestan and Ilam Province, as well as a small part of southern Iraq...
and others.
Various sources have theorized a Sumer
Sumer
Sumer was a civilization and historical region in southern Mesopotamia, modern Iraq during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age....
ian origin for these Babylonian constellations, but an Elamite origin has also been proposed. A connection to the star symbology of Kassite kudurru
Kudurru
Kudurru was a type of stone document used as boundary stones and as records of land grants to vassals by the Kassites in ancient Babylonia between the 16th and 12th centuries BCE. The word is Akkadian for "frontier" or "boundary"...
border stones has also been claimed, but whether such kudurrus really represented constellations and astronomical information aside for the use of the symbols remains unclear.
Star catalogues after Three Stars Each include the MUL.APIN
MUL.APIN
MUL.APIN is the conventional title given to a Babylonian compendium that deals with many diverse aspects of Babylonian astronomy and astrology....
list named after the first Babylonian constellation , "the Plough", which is the current Triangulum
Triangulum
Triangulum is a small constellation in the northern sky. Its name is Latin for triangle, and it should not be confused with Triangulum Australe in the southern sky. Its name derives from its three brightest stars, of third and fourth magnitude, which form a nearly isosceles long and narrow triangle...
constellation plus Gamma Andromedae
Gamma Andromedae
Gamma Andromedae is the third brightest star in the constellation of Andromeda. It is also known by the traditional name Almach , from the Arabic العناق الأرض al-‘anāq al-’arđ̧ "the caracal" .Another term for this star used by medieval astronomers...
. It lists, among others, 17 or 18 constellations in the zodiac
Zodiac
In astronomy, the zodiac is a circle of twelve 30° divisions of celestial longitude which are centred upon the ecliptic: the apparent path of the Sun across the celestial sphere over the course of the year...
. Later catalogues reduces the zodiacal set of constellations to 12, which were borrowed by the Egyptians
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh...
and the Greeks
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
, still surviving among the modern constellations.
Three Stars Each
The first formal compendia of star lists are the Three Stars Each texts appearing from about the 12th century BC. They represent a tripartite division of the heavens: the northern hemisphere belonged to Enlil, the equator belonged to Anu, and the southern hemisphere belonged to Ea. The boundaries were at 17 degrees North and South, so that the Sun spent exactly three consecutive months in each third. The enumeration of stars in the Three Stars Each catalogues includes 36 stars, three for each month. The determiner glyph for "constellation" or "star" in these lists is MUL ' onMouseout='HidePop("86984")' href="/topics/Dingir">ANDingir
Dingir is a cuneiform sign, most commonly the determinative for "deity" although it has related meanings as well. As a determinative, it is not pronounced, and is conventionally transliterated as a superscript "D" as in e.g. DInanna...
signs (the Pleiades
Pleiades (star cluster)
In astronomy, the Pleiades, or Seven Sisters , is an open star cluster containing middle-aged hot B-type stars located in the constellation of Taurus. It is among the nearest star clusters to Earth and is the cluster most obvious to the naked eye in the night sky...
are referred to as a "star cluster" or "star of stars" in the lists, written as MUL.MUL, or MULMUL).
MUL.APIN
The second formal compendium of stars in Babylonian astronomy is the MUL.APINMUL.APIN
MUL.APIN is the conventional title given to a Babylonian compendium that deals with many diverse aspects of Babylonian astronomy and astrology....
, a pair of tablets named for their incipit, corresponding to the first constellation of the year, "The Plough", identified with Triangulum
Triangulum
Triangulum is a small constellation in the northern sky. Its name is Latin for triangle, and it should not be confused with Triangulum Australe in the southern sky. Its name derives from its three brightest stars, of third and fourth magnitude, which form a nearly isosceles long and narrow triangle...
plus Gamma Andromedae
Gamma Andromedae
Gamma Andromedae is the third brightest star in the constellation of Andromeda. It is also known by the traditional name Almach , from the Arabic العناق الأرض al-‘anāq al-’arđ̧ "the caracal" .Another term for this star used by medieval astronomers...
. The list is a direct descendent of the Three Stars Each list, reworked around 1000 BC on the basis of more accurate observations. They include more constellations, including most circumpolar ones, and more of the zodiacal ones.
The Babylonian star catalogues entered Greek astronomy
Greek astronomy
Greek astronomy is astronomy written in the Greek language in classical antiquity. Greek astronomy is understood to include the ancient Greek, Hellenistic, Greco-Roman, and Late Antiquity eras. It is not limited geographically to Greece or to ethnic Greeks, as the Greek language had become the...
in the 4th century BC, via Eudoxus of Cnidus
Eudoxus of Cnidus
Eudoxus of Cnidus was a Greek astronomer, mathematician, scholar and student of Plato. Since all his own works are lost, our knowledge of him is obtained from secondary sources, such as Aratus's poem on astronomy...
and others.
A few of the constellation names in use in modern astronomy can be traced to Babylonian sources via Greek astronomy. Among the most ancient constellations are those that marked the four cardinal points of the year in the Middle Bronze Age, i.e.
- TaurusTaurus (constellation)Taurus is one of the constellations of the zodiac. Its name is a Latin word meaning 'bull', and its astrological symbol is a stylized bull's head:...
"The Bull", from GU4.AN.NA "The Steer of Heaven", marking vernal equinox - LeoLeo (constellation)Leo is one of the constellations of the zodiac. Its name is Latin for lion. Its symbol is . Leo lies between dim Cancer to the west and Virgo to the east.-Stars:...
"The Lion", from UR.GU.LA "The Lion", marking summer solsticeSummer solsticeThe summer solstice occurs exactly when the axial tilt of a planet's semi-axis in a given hemisphere is most inclined towards the star that it orbits. Earth's maximum axial tilt to our star, the Sun, during a solstice is 23° 26'. Though the summer solstice is an instant in time, the term is also... - Scorpius "The Scorpion", from GIR.TAB "The Scorpion", marking autumn equinox
- Capricornus "Goat-Horned", from SUḪUR.MAŠ "The Goat-Fish", marking winter solsticeWinter solsticeWinter solstice may refer to:* Winter solstice, astronomical event* Winter Solstice , former band* Winter Solstice: North , seasonal songs* Winter Solstice , 2005 American film...
. It is a mythological hybrid depicted on boundary stonesKudurruKudurru was a type of stone document used as boundary stones and as records of land grants to vassals by the Kassites in ancient Babylonia between the 16th and 12th centuries BCE. The word is Akkadian for "frontier" or "boundary"...
from before 2000 BC as a symbol of Ea.
There are other constellation names which can be traced to Bronze Age origins, including Gemini
Gemini (constellation)
Gemini is one of the constellations of the zodiac. It was one of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations today. Its name is Latin for "twins", and it is associated with the twins Castor and Pollux in Greek mythology...
"The Twins", from MAŠ.TAB.BA.GAL.GAL "The Great Twins", Cancer
Cancer (constellation)
Cancer is one of the twelve constellations of the zodiac. Its name is Latin for crab and it is commonly represented as such. Its symbol is . Cancer is small and its stars are faint...
"The Crab", from AL.LUL "The Crayfish", among others.
The MUL.APIN
MUL.APIN
MUL.APIN is the conventional title given to a Babylonian compendium that deals with many diverse aspects of Babylonian astronomy and astrology....
gives
- a catalogue of 71 stars and constellations of the "Three Ways" of the Three Stars Each tradition. The star names (prefixed with MUL 𒀯) are listed with the associated deity (prefix DINGIRDingirDingir is a cuneiform sign, most commonly the determinative for "deity" although it has related meanings as well. As a determinative, it is not pronounced, and is conventionally transliterated as a superscript "D" as in e.g. DInanna...
𒀭) and often some other brief epithet. - dates of heliacal risingHeliacal risingThe heliacal rising of a star occurs when it first becomes visible above the eastern horizon for a brief moment just before sunrise, after a period of time when it had not been visible....
s - pairs of constellations which rise and set simultaneously
- time-intervals between dates of heliacal risings
- pairs of constellations which are simultaneously at the zenith and at the horizon
- the path of the moon and planets.
- a solar calendar
- the planets and the durations of their solar conjunctions
- stellar risings and planetary positions for predicting weather and for adjusting the calendar
- telling time by length of the gnomon shadow
- length of night watches during the year
- omens connected with the appearance of stars planets, MUL.U.RI.RI (comets?) and winds.
Zodiacal constellations
The path of the Moon as given in MUL.APINMUL.APIN
MUL.APIN is the conventional title given to a Babylonian compendium that deals with many diverse aspects of Babylonian astronomy and astrology....
consists of 17 or 18 stations, recognizable as the direct predecessor of the twelve-sign zodiac.
Note that the beginning of the list with MUL.MUL "Pleiades
Pleiades (star cluster)
In astronomy, the Pleiades, or Seven Sisters , is an open star cluster containing middle-aged hot B-type stars located in the constellation of Taurus. It is among the nearest star clusters to Earth and is the cluster most obvious to the naked eye in the night sky...
" corresponds to the situation in the Early to Middle Bronze Age
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age is a period characterized by the use of copper and its alloy bronze as the chief hard materials in the manufacture of some implements and weapons. Chronologically, it stands between the Stone Age and Iron Age...
when the Sun at vernal equinox was close to the Pleiades in Taurus
Taurus (constellation)
Taurus is one of the constellations of the zodiac. Its name is a Latin word meaning 'bull', and its astrological symbol is a stylized bull's head:...
(closest in the 23rd century BC, the "Age of Taurus"), and not yet in Aries
Aries (constellation)
Aries is one of the constellations of the zodiac, located between Pisces to the west and Taurus to the east. Its name is Latin for ram, and its symbol is , representing a ram's horns...
as in the Iron Age (the "Age of Aries").
- MUL.MUL "The Star Cluster" or "Star of Stars" (PleiadesPleiades (star cluster)In astronomy, the Pleiades, or Seven Sisters , is an open star cluster containing middle-aged hot B-type stars located in the constellation of Taurus. It is among the nearest star clusters to Earth and is the cluster most obvious to the naked eye in the night sky...
) - GU4.AN.NA "The Steer of Heaven" (TaurusTaurus (constellation)Taurus is one of the constellations of the zodiac. Its name is a Latin word meaning 'bull', and its astrological symbol is a stylized bull's head:...
) - SIPA.ZI.AN.NA "The Loyal Shepherd of Heaven" (OrionOrion (constellation)Orion, often referred to as The Hunter, is a prominent constellation located on the celestial equator and visible throughout the world. It is one of the most conspicuous, and most recognizable constellations in the night sky...
) - ŠU.GI "The Old One" (PerseusPerseus (constellation)Perseus is a constellation in the northern sky, named after the Greek hero Perseus. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations defined by the International Astronomical Union...
) - ZUBI "The Scimitar" (AurigaAuriga (constellation)Auriga is a constellation in the northern sky. Its name is Latin for 'charioteer' and its stars form a shape that has been associated with the pointed helmet of a charioteer. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains among the 88 modern...
) - MAŠ.TAB.BA.GAL.GAL "The Great Twins" (GeminiGemini (constellation)Gemini is one of the constellations of the zodiac. It was one of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations today. Its name is Latin for "twins", and it is associated with the twins Castor and Pollux in Greek mythology...
) - AL.LUL "The Crayfish" (CancerCancer (constellation)Cancer is one of the twelve constellations of the zodiac. Its name is Latin for crab and it is commonly represented as such. Its symbol is . Cancer is small and its stars are faint...
) - UR.GU.LA "The Lion" (LeoLeo (constellation)Leo is one of the constellations of the zodiac. Its name is Latin for lion. Its symbol is . Leo lies between dim Cancer to the west and Virgo to the east.-Stars:...
) - AB.SIN "The Seed-Furrow" (VirgoVirgo (constellation)Virgo is one of the constellations of the zodiac. Its name is Latin for virgin, and its symbol is . Lying between Leo to the west and Libra to the east, it is the second largest constellation in the sky...
) - ZIB.BA.AN.NA/zi-ba-ni-tum "The Scales" (LibraLibra (constellation)Libra is a constellation of the zodiac. Its name is Latin for weighing scales, and its symbol is . It is fairly faint, with no first magnitude stars, and lies between Virgo to the west and Scorpius to the east.-Notable features:]...
) - GIR.TAB "The Scorpion" (Scorpius)
- PA.BIL.SAG (SagittariusSagittarius (constellation)Sagittarius is a constellation of the zodiac, the one containing the galactic center. Its name is Latin for the archer, and its symbol is , a stylized arrow. Sagittarius is commonly represented as a centaur drawing a bow...
) - SUḪUR.MAŠ.KU6 "The Goat-Fish" (Capricorn)
- GU.LA "The Great One" (AquariusAquarius (constellation)Aquarius is a constellation of the zodiac, situated between Capricornus and Pisces. Its name is Latin for "water-bearer" or "cup-bearer", and its symbol is , a representation of water....
) - KUN.MEŠ "The tails" (PiscesPisces (constellation)Pisces is a constellation of the zodiac. Its name is the Latin plural for fish, and its symbol is . It lies between Aquarius to the west and Aries to the east...
) - SIM.MAḪ "The Great Swallow" (SW PiscesPisces (constellation)Pisces is a constellation of the zodiac. Its name is the Latin plural for fish, and its symbol is . It lies between Aquarius to the west and Aries to the east...
and Epsilon Pegasi) - A.NU.NI.TUM/A-nu-ni-tum (AndromedaAndromeda (constellation)Andromeda is a constellation in the northern sky. It is named after Andromeda, the princess in the Greek legend of Perseus who was chained to a rock to be eaten by the sea monster Cetus...
) - LU.ḪUŊ.GA "The Agrarian Worker" (AriesAries (constellation)Aries is one of the constellations of the zodiac, located between Pisces to the west and Taurus to the east. Its name is Latin for ram, and its symbol is , representing a ram's horns...
)
The "Tail of the Swallow" (Pisces) has also been read as two constellations, "The Tail" and "The Swallow", whence the uncertainty whether the "zodiac" consists of 17 or 18 constellations. All constellations of the Iron Age twelve-sign zodiac are present among them, most of them with names that clearly identify them, while some ("Furrow" for Virgo, Pabilsag for Sagittarius, "Great One" for Aquarius, "Swallow Tail" for Pisces and "Agrarian Worker" for Aries) reached Greek astronomy with altered names.
For Virgo, and for her main star Spica
Spica
Spica is the brightest star in the constellation Virgo, and the 15th brightest star in the nighttime sky. It is 260 light years distant from Earth...
, Babylonian precedents are present. The MUL.APIN associates Absin "The Furrow" with "the goddess Shala
Shala
Shala is a Babylonian and Akkadian war goddess and a goddess of grain, the consort of the storm-god Adad. She carries a double-headed mace-scimitar embellished with lion heads. In the MUL.APIN, she is identified with the Virgo constellation, which was also known as "The Furrow"...
's ear of corn", and Shala is conventionally depicted as holding an ear of corn on boundary stones of the Kassite
Kassite
Kassite is a rare mineral with formula CaTi2O42. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic crystal system and forms radiating rosettes and pseudo-hexagonal tabular crystals which are commonly twinned. Crystals are brownish pink to pale yellow and are translucent with an adamantine luster...
era.
Regarding Sagittarius, Pabilsag is a comparatively obscure Sumerian god, later identified with Ninurta
Ninurta
Ninurta in Sumerian and Akkadian mythology was the god of Lagash, identified with Ningirsu with whom he may always have been identical...
. Another name for the constellation was Nebu "The Soldier".
Aquarius "The Water-Pourer" represents Ea himself, dubbed "The Great One" in the MUL.APIN. It contained the winter solstice
Winter solstice
Winter solstice may refer to:* Winter solstice, astronomical event* Winter Solstice , former band* Winter Solstice: North , seasonal songs* Winter Solstice , 2005 American film...
in the Early Bronze Age. In the Greek tradition, he became represented as simply a single vase from which a stream pouredd down to Piscis Austrinus
Piscis Austrinus
Piscis Austrinus is a constellation in the southern celestial hemisphere. The name is Latin for "the southern fish" in contrast with the larger constellation Pisces, which represents a pair of fishes. Prior to the 20th century, it was also known as Piscis Notius...
. The name in the Hindu zodiac is likewise kumbha "water-pitcher", showing that the zodiac reached India via Greek intermediaries.
The current definition of Pisces
Pisces (constellation)
Pisces is a constellation of the zodiac. Its name is the Latin plural for fish, and its symbol is . It lies between Aquarius to the west and Aries to the east...
is the youngest of the zodiacal constellations. The "Swallow" of Babylonian astronomy was larger, including parts of Pegasus
Pegasus (constellation)
Pegasus is a constellation in the northern sky, named after the winged horse Pegasus in Greek mythology. It was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one of the 88 modern constellations.-Stars:...
. Late Babylonian sources mention DU.NU.NU "The Fish-Cord".
It is unclear how the "Agrarian Worker" of the MUL.APIN became Aries "The Ram" of Greek tradition, possibly via association with Dumuzi the Shepherd.
See also
- History of the constellationsHistory of the constellationsThe current list of 88constellations recognised by the International Astronomical Union since 1922 is based on those listed by Ptolemy.The Bear, Orion and the Pleiades are mentioned in chapters 9 and 38 of the book of Job in the Bible....
- Babylonian calendarBabylonian calendarThe Babylonian calendar was a lunisolar calendar with years consisting of 12 lunar months, each beginning when a new crescent moon was first sighted low on the western horizon at sunset, plus an intercalary month inserted as needed by decree. The calendar is based on a Sumerian precedecessor...
- Babylonian astrologyBabylonian astrologyIn Babylon as well as in Assyria as a direct offshoot of Babylonian culture, astrology takes its place in theofficial cult as one of the two chief means at the disposal of the priests for ascertaining the will and intention of the gods, the other being through the inspection of the liver of the...
- MUL.APINMUL.APINMUL.APIN is the conventional title given to a Babylonian compendium that deals with many diverse aspects of Babylonian astronomy and astrology....
- Enuma anu enlilEnuma anu enlilEnuma Anu Enlil is a major series of 68 or 70 tablets dealing with Babylonian astrology...
- Venus tablet of AmmisaduqaVenus tablet of AmmisaduqaThe Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa refers to the record of astronomical observations of Venus, as preserved in numerous cuneiform tablets dating from the first millennium BCE. It is believed that this astronomical record was first compiled during the reign of King Ammisaduqa , the fourth ruler after...