Auditing information security
Encyclopedia
An information security audit is an audit
on the level of information security
in an organization. Within the broad scope of auditing information security there are multiple types of audits, multiple objectives for different audits, etc. Most commonly the controls
being audited can be categorized to technical
, physical and administrative. Auditing information security covers topics from auditing the physical security of data centers to the auditing logical security of databases and highlights key components to look for and different methods for auditing these areas.
When centered on the IT aspects of information security, it can be seen as a part of an information technology audit
. It is often then referred to as an information technology security audit or a computer security audit. However, information security encompasses much more than IT.
Following is a list of objectives the auditor should review:
The auditor should ask certain questions to better understand the network and its vulnerabilities. The auditor should first assess what the extent of the network is and how it is structured. A network diagram can assist the auditor in this process. The next question an auditor should ask is what critical information this network must protect. Things such as enterprise systems, mail servers, web servers, and host applications accessed by customers are typically areas of focus. It is also important to know who has access and to what parts. Do customers and vendors have access to systems on the network? Can employees access information from home? Lastly the auditor should assess how the network is connected to external networks and how it is protected. Most networks are at least connected to the internet, which could be a point of vulnerability. These are critical questions in protecting networks.
Auditors should continually evaluate their client’s encryption policies and procedures. Companies that are heavily reliant on e-commerce systems and wireless networks are extremely vulnerable to the theft and loss of critical information in transmission. Policies and procedures should be documented and carried out to ensure that all transmitted data is protected. Companies can base their policies on the Control Objectives for Information and related Technology (COBIT
) guidelines established by the IT Governance Institute (ITGI) and Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA). The IT auditor should be adequately informed about COBIT guidelines.
The auditor should verify that management has controls in place over the data encryption management process. Access to keys should require dual control, keys should be composed of two separate components and should be maintained on a computer that is not accessible to programmers or outside users. Furthermore, management should attest that encryption policies ensure data protection at the desired level and verify that the cost of encrypting the data does not exceed the value of the information itself. All data that is required to be maintained for an extensive amount of time should be encrypted and transported to a remote location. Procedures should be in place to guarantee that all encrypted sensitive information arrives at its location and is stored properly. Finally the auditor should attain verification from management that the encryption system is strong, not attackable and compliant with all local and international laws and regulations.
the auditor should investigate what security controls are in place, and how they work. In particular, the following areas are key points in auditing logical security:
, logical security and access control
s, anti-virus software, and auditing systems such as log management.
Firewalls are a very basic part of network security. They are often placed between the private local network and the internet. Firewalls provide a flow through for traffic in which it can be authenticated, monitored, logged, and reported. Some different types of firewalls include: network layer firewalls, screened subnet firewalls, packet filter firewalls, dynamic packet filtering firewalls, hybrid firewalls, transparent firewalls, and application-level firewalls.
The process of encryption involves converting plain text into a series of unreadable characters known as the ciphertext
. If the encrypted text is stolen or attained while in transit, the content is unreadable to the viewer. This guarantees secure transmission
and is extremely useful to companies sending/receiving critical information. Once encrypted information arrives at its intended recipient, the decryption process is deployed to restore the ciphertext back to plaintext.
Proxy servers hide the true address of the client workstation and can also act as a firewall. Proxy server firewalls have special software to enforce authentication. Proxy server firewalls act as a middle man for user requests.
Antivirus software programs such as McAfee and Symantec software locate and dispose of malicious content. These virus protection programs run live updates to ensure they have the latest information about known computer viruses.
Logical security includes software safeguards for an organization’s systems, including user ID and password access, authentication, access rights and authority levels. These measures are to ensure that only authorized users are able to perform actions or access information in a network or a workstation.
Auditing systems, track and record what happens over an organization’s network. Log Management solutions are often used to centrally collect audit trails from heterogeneous systems for analysis and forensics. Log management is excellent for tracking and identifying unauthorized users that might be trying to access the network, and what authorized users have been accessing in the network and changes to user authorities. Software that record and index user activities within window sessions such as ObserveIT provide comprehensive audit trail of user activities when connected remotely through terminal services, Citrix and other remote access software.
According to a 2006 survey of 3243 Nmap
users by Insecure.Org, Nessus
, Wireshark
, and Snort
were some top-rated network security tools. According to the same survey, the BackTrack
Live CD is the top rated information security auditing and penetration testing distribution. Nessus is a remote security scanner that performs over 1200 security checks for Linux, BSD, and Solaris. Wireshark analyzes network protocol for Unix and Windows, and Snort is an intrusion detection system that also supports Microsoft Windows. Nessus, Wireshark, and Snort are free. Some other popular products for network security include OmniGuard, Guardian, and LANGuard. Omniguard is a firewall, as is Guardian which also provides virus protection. LANGuard provides network auditing, intrusion detection, and network management. For log management, solutions from vendors such as SenSage and others are the choice for government agencies and highly regulated industries.
When it comes to programming it is important to ensure proper physical and password protection exists around servers and mainframes for the development and update of key systems. Having physical access security at your data center
or office such as electronic badges and badge readers, security guards, choke points, and security cameras is vitally important to ensuring the security of your applications and data. Then you need to have security around changes to the system. Those usually have to do with proper security access to make the changes and having proper authorization procedures in place for pulling through programming changes from development through test and finally into production.
With processing it is important that procedures and monitoring of a few different aspects such as the input of falsified or erroneous data, incomplete processing, duplicate transactions and untimely processing are in place. Making sure that input is randomly reviewed or that all processing has proper approval is a way to ensure this. It is important to be able to identify incomplete processing and ensure that proper procedures are in place for either completing it, or deleting it from the system if it was in error. There should also be procedures to identify and correct duplicate entries. Finally when it comes to processing that is not being done on a timely basis you should back-track the associated data to see where the delay is coming from and identify whether or not this delay creates any control concerns.
Finally, access, it is important to realize that maintaining network security
against unauthorized access is one of the major focuses for companies as threats can come from a few sources. First you have internal unauthorized access. It is very important to have system access passwords that must be changed regularly and that there is a way to track access and changes so you are able to identify who made what changes. All activity should be logged. The second arena to be concerned with is remote access, people accessing your system from the outside through the internet. Setting up firewalls and password protection to on-line data changes are key to protecting against unauthorized remote access. One way to identify weaknesses in access controls is to bring in a hacker
to try and crack your system by either gaining entry to the building and using an internal terminal or hacking in from the outside through remote access.
(SoD) from a systems perspective is to review individuals’ access authorizations. Certain systems such as SAP
claim to come with the capability to perform SoD tests, but the functionality provided is elementary, requiring very time consuming queries to be built and is limited to the transaction level only with little or no use of the object or field values assigned to the user through the transaction, which often produces misleading results. For complex systems such as SAP, it is often preferred to use tools developed specifically to assess and analyze SoD conflicts and other types of system activity. For other systems or for multiple system formats you should monitor which users may have super user access to the system giving them unlimited access to all aspects of the system. Also, developing a matrix for all functions highlighting the points where proper segregation of duties
has been breached will help identify potential material weaknesses by cross checking each employee’s available accesses. This is as important if not more so in the development function as it is in production. Ensuring that people who develop the programs are not the ones who are authorized to pull it into production is key to preventing unauthorized programs into the production environment where they can be used to perpetrate fraud.
are both in many ways connected and they both have the same goal, to protect the integrity of the companies’ data and to prevent fraud. For application security it has to do with preventing unauthorized access to hardware and software through having proper security measures both physical and electronic in place. With segregation of duties it is primarily a physical review of individuals’ access to the systems and processing and ensuring that there are no overlaps that could lead to fraud.
Audit
The general definition of an audit is an evaluation of a person, organization, system, process, enterprise, project or product. The term most commonly refers to audits in accounting, but similar concepts also exist in project management, quality management, and energy conservation.- Accounting...
on the level of information security
Information security
Information security means protecting information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, perusal, inspection, recording or destruction....
in an organization. Within the broad scope of auditing information security there are multiple types of audits, multiple objectives for different audits, etc. Most commonly the controls
Internal control
In accounting and auditing, internal control is defined as a process effected by an organization's structure, work and authority flows, people and management information systems, designed to help the organization accomplish specific goals or objectives. It is a means by which an organization's...
being audited can be categorized to technical
Technology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
, physical and administrative. Auditing information security covers topics from auditing the physical security of data centers to the auditing logical security of databases and highlights key components to look for and different methods for auditing these areas.
When centered on the IT aspects of information security, it can be seen as a part of an information technology audit
Information technology audit
An information technology audit, or information systems audit, is an examination of the management controls within an Information technology infrastructure. The evaluation of obtained evidence determines if the information systems are safeguarding assets, maintaining data integrity, and operating...
. It is often then referred to as an information technology security audit or a computer security audit. However, information security encompasses much more than IT.
Audit planning & preparation
The auditor should be adequately educated about the company and its critical business activities before conducting a data center review. The objective of the data center is to align data center activities with the goals of the business while maintaining the security and integrity of critical information and processes. To adequately determine if whether or not the client’s goal is being achieved, the auditor should perform the following before conducting the review:- Meet with IT management to determine possible areas of concern
- Review the current IT organization chartOrganizational chartAn organizational chart is a diagram that shows the structure of an organization and the relationships and relative ranks of its parts and positions/jobs...
- Review job descriptions of data center employees
- Research all operating systems, software applications and data center equipment operating within the data center
- Review the company’s IT policies and procedures
- Evaluate the company’s IT budget and systems planning documentation
- Review the data center’s disaster recovery plan
Establishing audit objectives
The next step in conducting a review of a corporate data center takes place when the auditor outlines the data center audit objectives. Auditors consider multiple factors that relate to data center procedures and activities that potentially identify audit risks in the operating environment and assess the controls in place that mitigate those risks. After thorough testing and analysis, the auditor is able to adequately determine if the data center maintains proper controls and is operating efficiently and effectively.Following is a list of objectives the auditor should review:
- Personnel procedures and responsibilities including systems and cross-functional training
- Change managementChange Management (ITSM)Change management is an IT service management discipline. The objective of change management in this context is to ensure that standardized methods and procedures are used for efficient and prompt handling of all changes to control IT infrastructure, in order to minimize the number and impact of...
processes are in place and followed by IT and management personnel - Appropriate back up procedures are in place to minimize downtime and prevent loss of important data
- The data center has adequate physical security controls to prevent unauthorized access to the data center
- Adequate environmental controls are in place to ensure equipment is protected from fire and flooding
Performing the review
The next step is collecting evidence to satisfy data center audit objectives. This involves traveling to the data center location and observing processes and procedures performed within the data center. The following review procedures should be conducted to satisfy the pre-determined audit objectives:- Data center personnel – All data center personnel should be authorized to access the data center (key cards, login ID’s, secure passwords, etc.). Data center employees are adequately educated about data center equipment and properly perform their jobs. Vendor service personnel are supervised when doing work on data center equipment. The auditor should observe and interview data center employees to satisfy their objectives.
- Equipment – The auditor should verify that all data center equipment is working properly and effectively. Equipment utilization reports, equipment inspection for damage and functionality, system downtime records and equipment performance measurements all help the auditor determine the state of data center equipment. Additionally, the auditor should interview employees to determine if preventative maintenance policies are in place and performed.
- Policies and Procedures – All data center policies and procedures should be documented and located at the data center. Important documented procedures include: data center personnel job responsibilities, back up policies, security policies, employee termination policies, system operating procedures and an overview of operating systems.
- Physical security / environmental controls – The auditor should assess the security of the client’s data center. Physical security includes bodyguards, locked cages, man traps, single entrances, bolted down equipment, and computer monitoring systems. Additionally, environmental controls should be in place to ensure the security of data center equipment. These include: Air conditioning units, raised floors, humidifiers and uninterruptible power supplyUninterruptible power supplyAn uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup, is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically mains power, fails...
. - Backup procedures – The auditor should verify that the client has backup procedures in place in the case of system failure. Clients may maintain a backup data center at a separate location that allows them to instantaneously continue operations in the instance of system failure.
Issuing the review report
The data center review report should summarize the auditor’s findings and be similar in format to a standard review report. The review report should be dated as of the completion of the auditor's inquiry and procedures. It should state what the review entailed and explain that a review provides only "limited assurance" to third parties.Network vulnerabilities
- Interception: Data that is being transmitted over the network is vulnerable to being intercepted by an unintended third party who could put the data to harmful use.
- Availability: Networks have become wide-spanning, crossing hundreds or thousands of miles which many rely on to access company information, and lost connectivity could cause business interruption.
- Access/entry point: Networks are vulnerable to unwanted access. A weak point in the network can make that information available to intruders. It can also provide an entry point for viruses and Trojan horses.
Controls
- Interception controls: Interception can be partially deterred by physical access controls at data centers and offices, including where communication links terminate and where the network wiring and distributions are located. Encryption also helps to secure wireless networks.
- Availability controls: The best control for this is to have excellent network architecture and monitoring. The network should have redundant paths between every resource and an access point and automatic routing to switch the traffic to the available path without loss of data or time.
- Access/entry point controls: Most network controls are put at the point where the network connects with external network. These controls limit the traffic that pass through the network. These can include firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and antivirus software.
The auditor should ask certain questions to better understand the network and its vulnerabilities. The auditor should first assess what the extent of the network is and how it is structured. A network diagram can assist the auditor in this process. The next question an auditor should ask is what critical information this network must protect. Things such as enterprise systems, mail servers, web servers, and host applications accessed by customers are typically areas of focus. It is also important to know who has access and to what parts. Do customers and vendors have access to systems on the network? Can employees access information from home? Lastly the auditor should assess how the network is connected to external networks and how it is protected. Most networks are at least connected to the internet, which could be a point of vulnerability. These are critical questions in protecting networks.
Encryption and IT audit
In assessing the need for a client to implement encryption policies for their organization, the Auditor should conduct an analysis of the client’s risk and data value. Companies with multiple external users, e-commerce applications, and sensitive customer/employee information should maintain rigid encryption policies aimed at encrypting the correct data at the appropriate stage in the data collection process.Auditors should continually evaluate their client’s encryption policies and procedures. Companies that are heavily reliant on e-commerce systems and wireless networks are extremely vulnerable to the theft and loss of critical information in transmission. Policies and procedures should be documented and carried out to ensure that all transmitted data is protected. Companies can base their policies on the Control Objectives for Information and related Technology (COBIT
COBIT
COBIT is a framework created by ISACA for information technology management and IT Governance. It is a supporting toolset that allows managers to bridge the gap between control requirements, technical issues and business risks.-Overview:...
) guidelines established by the IT Governance Institute (ITGI) and Information Systems Audit and Control Association (ISACA). The IT auditor should be adequately informed about COBIT guidelines.
The auditor should verify that management has controls in place over the data encryption management process. Access to keys should require dual control, keys should be composed of two separate components and should be maintained on a computer that is not accessible to programmers or outside users. Furthermore, management should attest that encryption policies ensure data protection at the desired level and verify that the cost of encrypting the data does not exceed the value of the information itself. All data that is required to be maintained for an extensive amount of time should be encrypted and transported to a remote location. Procedures should be in place to guarantee that all encrypted sensitive information arrives at its location and is stored properly. Finally the auditor should attain verification from management that the encryption system is strong, not attackable and compliant with all local and international laws and regulations.
Logical security audit
The first step in an audit of any system is to seek to understand its components and its structure. When auditing logical securityLogical security
Logical Security consists of software safeguards for an organization’s systems, including user identification and password access, authentication, access rights and authority levels. These measures are to ensure that only authorized users are able to perform actions or access information in a...
the auditor should investigate what security controls are in place, and how they work. In particular, the following areas are key points in auditing logical security:
- Passwords: Every company should have written policies regarding passwords, and employee’s use of them. Passwords should not be shared and employees should have mandatory scheduled changes. Employees should have user rights that are in line with their job functions. They should also be aware of proper log on/ log off procedures. Also helpful are security tokens, small devices that authorized users of computer programs or networks carry to assist in identity confirmation. They can also store cryptographic keys and biometric data. The most popular type of security token (RSA’s SecurID) displays a number which changes every minute. Users are authenticated by entering a personal identification number and the number on the token.
- Termination Procedures: Proper termination procedures so that old employees can no longer access the network. This can be done by changing passwords and codes. Also, all id cards and badges that are in circulation should be documented and accounted for.
- Special User Accounts: Special User Accounts and other privileged accounts should be monitored and have proper controls in place.
- Remote Access: Remote access is often a point where intruders can enter a system. The logical security tools used for remote access should be very strict. Remote access should be logged.
Specific tools used in network security
Network security is achieved by various tools including firewalls and proxy servers, encryptionEncryption
In cryptography, encryption is the process of transforming information using an algorithm to make it unreadable to anyone except those possessing special knowledge, usually referred to as a key. The result of the process is encrypted information...
, logical security and access control
Access control
Access control refers to exerting control over who can interact with a resource. Often but not always, this involves an authority, who does the controlling. The resource can be a given building, group of buildings, or computer-based information system...
s, anti-virus software, and auditing systems such as log management.
Firewalls are a very basic part of network security. They are often placed between the private local network and the internet. Firewalls provide a flow through for traffic in which it can be authenticated, monitored, logged, and reported. Some different types of firewalls include: network layer firewalls, screened subnet firewalls, packet filter firewalls, dynamic packet filtering firewalls, hybrid firewalls, transparent firewalls, and application-level firewalls.
The process of encryption involves converting plain text into a series of unreadable characters known as the ciphertext
Ciphertext
In cryptography, ciphertext is the result of encryption performed on plaintext using an algorithm, called a cipher. Ciphertext is also known as encrypted or encoded information because it contains a form of the original plaintext that is unreadable by a human or computer without the proper cipher...
. If the encrypted text is stolen or attained while in transit, the content is unreadable to the viewer. This guarantees secure transmission
Secure transmission
In computer science, Secure Transmission refers to the transfer of data such as confidential or proprietary information over a secure channel. Many secure transmission methods require a type of encryption. The most common email encryption is called PKI...
and is extremely useful to companies sending/receiving critical information. Once encrypted information arrives at its intended recipient, the decryption process is deployed to restore the ciphertext back to plaintext.
Proxy servers hide the true address of the client workstation and can also act as a firewall. Proxy server firewalls have special software to enforce authentication. Proxy server firewalls act as a middle man for user requests.
Antivirus software programs such as McAfee and Symantec software locate and dispose of malicious content. These virus protection programs run live updates to ensure they have the latest information about known computer viruses.
Logical security includes software safeguards for an organization’s systems, including user ID and password access, authentication, access rights and authority levels. These measures are to ensure that only authorized users are able to perform actions or access information in a network or a workstation.
Auditing systems, track and record what happens over an organization’s network. Log Management solutions are often used to centrally collect audit trails from heterogeneous systems for analysis and forensics. Log management is excellent for tracking and identifying unauthorized users that might be trying to access the network, and what authorized users have been accessing in the network and changes to user authorities. Software that record and index user activities within window sessions such as ObserveIT provide comprehensive audit trail of user activities when connected remotely through terminal services, Citrix and other remote access software.
According to a 2006 survey of 3243 Nmap
Nmap
Nmap is a security scanner originally written by Gordon Lyon used to discover hosts and services on a computer network, thus creating a "map" ofthe network...
users by Insecure.Org, Nessus
Nessus (software)
In computer security, Nessus is a proprietary comprehensive vulnerability scanning program. It is free of charge for personal use in a non-enterprise environment. Its goal is to detect potential vulnerabilities on the tested systems. For example:...
, Wireshark
Wireshark
Wireshark is a free and open-source packet analyzer. It is used for network troubleshooting, analysis, software and communications protocol development, and education...
, and Snort
Snort (software)
Snort is a free and open source network intrusion prevention system and network intrusion detection system , created by Martin Roesch in 1998...
were some top-rated network security tools. According to the same survey, the BackTrack
BackTrack
BackTrack is an operating system based on the Ubuntu GNU/Linux distribution aimed at digital forensics and penetration testing use. It is named after backtracking, a search algorithm...
Live CD is the top rated information security auditing and penetration testing distribution. Nessus is a remote security scanner that performs over 1200 security checks for Linux, BSD, and Solaris. Wireshark analyzes network protocol for Unix and Windows, and Snort is an intrusion detection system that also supports Microsoft Windows. Nessus, Wireshark, and Snort are free. Some other popular products for network security include OmniGuard, Guardian, and LANGuard. Omniguard is a firewall, as is Guardian which also provides virus protection. LANGuard provides network auditing, intrusion detection, and network management. For log management, solutions from vendors such as SenSage and others are the choice for government agencies and highly regulated industries.
Application security
Application Security centers around three main functions:- Programming
- Processing
- Access
When it comes to programming it is important to ensure proper physical and password protection exists around servers and mainframes for the development and update of key systems. Having physical access security at your data center
Data center
A data center is a facility used to house computer systems and associated components, such as telecommunications and storage systems...
or office such as electronic badges and badge readers, security guards, choke points, and security cameras is vitally important to ensuring the security of your applications and data. Then you need to have security around changes to the system. Those usually have to do with proper security access to make the changes and having proper authorization procedures in place for pulling through programming changes from development through test and finally into production.
With processing it is important that procedures and monitoring of a few different aspects such as the input of falsified or erroneous data, incomplete processing, duplicate transactions and untimely processing are in place. Making sure that input is randomly reviewed or that all processing has proper approval is a way to ensure this. It is important to be able to identify incomplete processing and ensure that proper procedures are in place for either completing it, or deleting it from the system if it was in error. There should also be procedures to identify and correct duplicate entries. Finally when it comes to processing that is not being done on a timely basis you should back-track the associated data to see where the delay is coming from and identify whether or not this delay creates any control concerns.
Finally, access, it is important to realize that maintaining network security
Network security
In the field of networking, the area of network security consists of the provisions and policies adopted by the network administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer network and network-accessible resources...
against unauthorized access is one of the major focuses for companies as threats can come from a few sources. First you have internal unauthorized access. It is very important to have system access passwords that must be changed regularly and that there is a way to track access and changes so you are able to identify who made what changes. All activity should be logged. The second arena to be concerned with is remote access, people accessing your system from the outside through the internet. Setting up firewalls and password protection to on-line data changes are key to protecting against unauthorized remote access. One way to identify weaknesses in access controls is to bring in a hacker
Hacker (computer security)
In computer security and everyday language, a hacker is someone who breaks into computers and computer networks. Hackers may be motivated by a multitude of reasons, including profit, protest, or because of the challenge...
to try and crack your system by either gaining entry to the building and using an internal terminal or hacking in from the outside through remote access.
Segregation of duties
When you have a function that deals with money either incoming or outgoing it is very important to make sure that duties are segregated to minimize and hopefully prevent fraud. One of the key ways to ensure proper segregation of dutiesSeparation of duties
Separation of duties is the concept of having more than one person required to complete a task. In business the separation by sharing of more than one individual in one single task shall prevent from fraud and error. The concept is alternatively called segregation of duties or, in the political...
(SoD) from a systems perspective is to review individuals’ access authorizations. Certain systems such as SAP
Systems Applications Products audit
Systems Applications Products audit is when a computer system from SAP undegoes an audit to check its security and data integrity. SAP is the acronym for Systems, Applications, Products. It is a system that provides users with a soft real time business application. It contains a user interface and...
claim to come with the capability to perform SoD tests, but the functionality provided is elementary, requiring very time consuming queries to be built and is limited to the transaction level only with little or no use of the object or field values assigned to the user through the transaction, which often produces misleading results. For complex systems such as SAP, it is often preferred to use tools developed specifically to assess and analyze SoD conflicts and other types of system activity. For other systems or for multiple system formats you should monitor which users may have super user access to the system giving them unlimited access to all aspects of the system. Also, developing a matrix for all functions highlighting the points where proper segregation of duties
Separation of duties
Separation of duties is the concept of having more than one person required to complete a task. In business the separation by sharing of more than one individual in one single task shall prevent from fraud and error. The concept is alternatively called segregation of duties or, in the political...
has been breached will help identify potential material weaknesses by cross checking each employee’s available accesses. This is as important if not more so in the development function as it is in production. Ensuring that people who develop the programs are not the ones who are authorized to pull it into production is key to preventing unauthorized programs into the production environment where they can be used to perpetrate fraud.
Summary
By and large the two concepts of application security and segregation of dutiesSeparation of duties
Separation of duties is the concept of having more than one person required to complete a task. In business the separation by sharing of more than one individual in one single task shall prevent from fraud and error. The concept is alternatively called segregation of duties or, in the political...
are both in many ways connected and they both have the same goal, to protect the integrity of the companies’ data and to prevent fraud. For application security it has to do with preventing unauthorized access to hardware and software through having proper security measures both physical and electronic in place. With segregation of duties it is primarily a physical review of individuals’ access to the systems and processing and ensuring that there are no overlaps that could lead to fraud.
See also
- Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of personal dataDirective 95/46/EC on the protection of personal dataThe Data Protection Directive is a European Union directive which regulates the processing of personal data within the European Union...
(European UnionEuropean UnionThe European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
) - Information securityInformation securityInformation security means protecting information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, perusal, inspection, recording or destruction....