Armatoloi
Encyclopedia
Armatoloi (Greek
plural Αρματολοί; singular Armatolos - Αρματολός; also called Armatoles in English) were Greek Christian irregular soldiers, or militia
, commissioned by the Ottomans
to enforce the Sultan's authority within an administrative district called an Armatoliki (Greek
singular Αρματολίκι; plural Armatolikia - Αρματολίκια). Armatolikia were created in areas of Greece that had high levels of brigandage, or in regions that were difficult for Ottoman authorities to govern due to the inaccessible terrain, such as the Agrafa
mountains of Thessaly
, where the first armatoliki was established in the mid-15th century.
An armatoliki was usually commanded by a kapetanios (captain), often a former klepht
captain who had been hired by the governing Ottoman
Pasha
to combat, or at least contain, brigand
groups in the region. In most cases, the captain would have gained a level of notoriety as a klepht to force the Ottomans to give him the amnesty and privilege that came with an armatoliki. Therefore, it was not surprising that armatolos units were organised in very much the same way as the klepht
s, with a captain assisted by a lieutenant
called a protopalikaro, who was usually a kinsman, and the remaining force made up of armatoloi.
Over time, the roles of the armatoloi and klephtes became blurred, with both reversing their roles and allegiances as the situation demanded, all the while maintaining the delicate status-quo with the Ottoman authorities. Many captains ran their armatoliki like their personal fiefdoms, exacting a heavy toll of extortion and violence on the local peasantry.
During the Greek War of Independence
, the armatoloi, along with the klephtes, formed the nucleus of the Greek fighting forces, and played a prominent part throughout its duration.
Yannis Makriyannis referred to the "klephtes and armatoloi" as the "yeast of liberty".
αρματολόγος ('someone who deals with arms', 'an armed person') > αρματολόος > αρματολός. According to an older hypothesis, the development of the word may also have been influenced by a conflation with the similar-sounding αμαρτωλός ('sinner'), which may have been associated with the topic of armed bands through phrases such as "αμαρτωλοί/αρματολοί και κλέφτες" (meaning 'sinners and thieves', but also 'armatoloi and klephts'). Owing to the parallelism with "αμαρτωλός", the word was also sometimes spelled as "αρματωλός", with the letter omega.
(Thessaly
) during the reign of Murad II
(1421–1451). From there, they spread to other parts of Greece except the Peloponnese.
The armatoloi were mostly concentrated in Macedonia, Thessaly
, Epirus
, Acarnania
, and Aetolia
(specifically Agrafa
). In the Peloponnesus, armatolismos did not develop in the same manner as it did in Roumeli and Epirus. In the Peloponnesus, the kapoi (κάποι) and the meintanides (μεϊντάνηδες) were similar to the armatoloi. If in certain regions, the institution of armatolismos was not implemented, the territories were divided into armatolikia (αρματολίκια) or protakta (προτάκτα). These territories extended from Axios river (Αξιός) to Ambracian Gulf
(Αμβρακικός) and up to the Corinthian gulf (Κορινθιακός). The kapetanioi would often have authority over these territories via inheritance/succession. A single kapetanio was at first forced to submit his authority to the pasha who controlled the periphery. Later, all kapetanioi were forced to submit to Dervedji pasha (Δερβετζή πασά).
During the 18th century, there were around seventeen armatolikia. Ten of them were located in Thessaly and the eastern regions of Central Greece
, four of them in Epirus, Acarnania, and Aetolia, and three in Macedonia. Every kapetanio had his palikaria (παλικάρια). Among these palikaria, the best recognized leader, secretary, and sometimes successor of the kapetanio was deemed protopalikaro (πρωτοπαλίκαρο). The palikaria would train with their weapons on a daily basis.
The main weapon the palikaria utilized was the kariofili (καριοφίλι). Marksmanship was the proverbial hallmark that defined the palikaria. They were also capable in the art of ambush
ing and mobility. The palikaria were resilient toward thirst, hunger and even the painful difficulties in their encounters with the klephts.
The term klephtopolemos (κλεφτοπόλεμος) was used to name the strategies/tactics that both the klephts and armatoloi utilized. These tactics are used today for unconventional military campaigns by small guerrilla groups. The armatoloi would conduct campaigns during nighttime. This strategy was known as "going out to pagana" (έβγαιναν στην παγάνα). The armatoloi would usually do this when the klephts were coming out of their dens. The armatoloi would defend themselves in improvised forts (called meterizia; μετερίζια) against the guerrilla tactics utilized by the klephts (specifically known as klephtouria; κλεφτουριά). A general offensive campaign by the armatoloi was known as giourousi (γιουρούσι). During one of these campaigns, the armatoloi would make effective use of swords and warcries.
.
The first recorded appearance of collaborations between armatoloi and klephts goes back to 1585 during the wars fought between the Venetians
and the Ottomans. During this time, Theodoros Boua-Grivas incited an insurrection in Acarnania
and Epirus
with armatoloi Poulios Drakos and Malamos from Epirus. The Sublime Port continued to have trust in armed groups such as the armatoloi up until 1684. During that year, the bodyguards of the Port, the armatoloi, became carriers of ethnic-oriented ideas. Prominent armatoloi from the 17th century were Soumilas (Σουμίλας), Meintanis (Μεϊντάνης), Livinis (Λιβίνης), Kourmas (Κούρμας), the Balaorites (Βαλαωρίτες), etc. Though these individuals engaged in failed rebellions, their attempts became an inspiration for future armatoloi to follow.
tried to inspire a rebellion in Greece (see Orlov Revolt
). During these attempts many armatoloi took up arms. With the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, (an insurrection in which Russia had, for once, no involvement as an instigator or agitator) a number of prominent armatoloi abandoned any allegiance to the Ottoman state and formed the nucleus of the Greek land forces. Among them were Odysseas Androutsos
, Georgios Karaiskakis
, Athanasios Diakos
, and Markos Botsaris
. There were armatoloi (such as Karaiskakis) that were initially employed by Ali Pasha
, and of whom some fought with him against the Ottomans. In 1820, when Ali declared his territory’s withdrawal from Ottoman influence, he depended heavily on the Greek armatoloi to help him. Though Ali’s insurrection failed, this bold experiment did not weaken the ability of the armatoloi to fight for independence and contribute to the Greek Revolution.
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
plural Αρματολοί; singular Armatolos - Αρματολός; also called Armatoles in English) were Greek Christian irregular soldiers, or militia
Militia
The term militia is commonly used today to refer to a military force composed of ordinary citizens to provide defense, emergency law enforcement, or paramilitary service, in times of emergency without being paid a regular salary or committed to a fixed term of service. It is a polyseme with...
, commissioned by the Ottomans
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
to enforce the Sultan's authority within an administrative district called an Armatoliki (Greek
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
singular Αρματολίκι; plural Armatolikia - Αρματολίκια). Armatolikia were created in areas of Greece that had high levels of brigandage, or in regions that were difficult for Ottoman authorities to govern due to the inaccessible terrain, such as the Agrafa
Agrafa
Agrafa is a mountainous region in Evrytania and Karditsa prefectures in mainland Greece, consisting mainly of small villages. It is the southernmost part of the Pindus range...
mountains of Thessaly
Thessaly
Thessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey....
, where the first armatoliki was established in the mid-15th century.
An armatoliki was usually commanded by a kapetanios (captain), often a former klepht
Klepht
Klephts were self-appointed armatoloi, anti-Ottoman insurgents, and warlike mountain-folk who lived in the countryside when Greece was a part of the Ottoman Empire...
captain who had been hired by the governing Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
Pasha
Pasha
Pasha or pascha, formerly bashaw, was a high rank in the Ottoman Empire political system, typically granted to governors, generals and dignitaries. As an honorary title, Pasha, in one of its various ranks, is equivalent to the British title of Lord, and was also one of the highest titles in...
to combat, or at least contain, brigand
Klepht
Klephts were self-appointed armatoloi, anti-Ottoman insurgents, and warlike mountain-folk who lived in the countryside when Greece was a part of the Ottoman Empire...
groups in the region. In most cases, the captain would have gained a level of notoriety as a klepht to force the Ottomans to give him the amnesty and privilege that came with an armatoliki. Therefore, it was not surprising that armatolos units were organised in very much the same way as the klepht
Klepht
Klephts were self-appointed armatoloi, anti-Ottoman insurgents, and warlike mountain-folk who lived in the countryside when Greece was a part of the Ottoman Empire...
s, with a captain assisted by a lieutenant
Lieutenant
A lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer in many nations' armed forces. Typically, the rank of lieutenant in naval usage, while still a junior officer rank, is senior to the army rank...
called a protopalikaro, who was usually a kinsman, and the remaining force made up of armatoloi.
Over time, the roles of the armatoloi and klephtes became blurred, with both reversing their roles and allegiances as the situation demanded, all the while maintaining the delicate status-quo with the Ottoman authorities. Many captains ran their armatoliki like their personal fiefdoms, exacting a heavy toll of extortion and violence on the local peasantry.
During the Greek War of Independence
Greek War of Independence
The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution was a successful war of independence waged by the Greek revolutionaries between...
, the armatoloi, along with the klephtes, formed the nucleus of the Greek fighting forces, and played a prominent part throughout its duration.
Yannis Makriyannis referred to the "klephtes and armatoloi" as the "yeast of liberty".
Etymology
The word first appeared during the 15th century during Venetian times. It is derived from a medieval loan from Latin arma ('weapon'), probably via GreekGreek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
αρματολόγος ('someone who deals with arms', 'an armed person') > αρματολόος > αρματολός. According to an older hypothesis, the development of the word may also have been influenced by a conflation with the similar-sounding αμαρτωλός ('sinner'), which may have been associated with the topic of armed bands through phrases such as "αμαρτωλοί/αρματολοί και κλέφτες" (meaning 'sinners and thieves', but also 'armatoloi and klephts'). Owing to the parallelism with "αμαρτωλός", the word was also sometimes spelled as "αρματωλός", with the letter omega.
Origins
According to Vacalopoulos, the armatoles first appeared as an institution in AgrafaAgrafa
Agrafa is a mountainous region in Evrytania and Karditsa prefectures in mainland Greece, consisting mainly of small villages. It is the southernmost part of the Pindus range...
(Thessaly
Thessaly
Thessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey....
) during the reign of Murad II
Murad II
Murad II Kodja was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1421 to 1451 ....
(1421–1451). From there, they spread to other parts of Greece except the Peloponnese.
Ottoman period
The armatoloi were organized based on a feudal system under which military/police units maintained their duties in exchange for titles of land. When the Ottomans conquered the plains of Greece (along with a myriad of islands), they did not disband or remove the armatoloi. In fact, the Ottomans established treaties with the armatoloi in order for them to maintain their military/police functions. The Ottomans would have units of armatoloi or kapetanioi (καπετάνιοι; captains) function as peace-keepers in territories near difficult terrain (i.e. mountain passes) or in areas where resistance to foreign rule entailed acts of theft by the klephts.The armatoloi were mostly concentrated in Macedonia, Thessaly
Thessaly
Thessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey....
, Epirus
Epirus
The name Epirus, from the Greek "Ήπειρος" meaning continent may refer to:-Geographical:* Epirus - a historical and geographical region of the southwestern Balkans, straddling modern Greece and Albania...
, Acarnania
Acarnania
Acarnania is a region of west-central Greece that lies along the Ionian Sea, west of Aetolia, with the Achelous River for a boundary, and north of the gulf of Calydon, which is the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. Today it forms the western part of the prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania. The capital...
, and Aetolia
Aetolia
Aetolia is a mountainous region of Greece on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, forming the eastern part of the modern prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania.-Geography:...
(specifically Agrafa
Agrafa
Agrafa is a mountainous region in Evrytania and Karditsa prefectures in mainland Greece, consisting mainly of small villages. It is the southernmost part of the Pindus range...
). In the Peloponnesus, armatolismos did not develop in the same manner as it did in Roumeli and Epirus. In the Peloponnesus, the kapoi (κάποι) and the meintanides (μεϊντάνηδες) were similar to the armatoloi. If in certain regions, the institution of armatolismos was not implemented, the territories were divided into armatolikia (αρματολίκια) or protakta (προτάκτα). These territories extended from Axios river (Αξιός) to Ambracian Gulf
Ambracian Gulf
The Ambracian Gulf, also known as the Gulf of Arta or the Gulf of Actium, and in some official documents as the Amvrakikos Gulf , is a gulf of the Ionian Sea in northwestern Greece. About long and wide, it is one of the largest enclosed gulfs in Greece...
(Αμβρακικός) and up to the Corinthian gulf (Κορινθιακός). The kapetanioi would often have authority over these territories via inheritance/succession. A single kapetanio was at first forced to submit his authority to the pasha who controlled the periphery. Later, all kapetanioi were forced to submit to Dervedji pasha (Δερβετζή πασά).
During the 18th century, there were around seventeen armatolikia. Ten of them were located in Thessaly and the eastern regions of Central Greece
Central Greece
Continental Greece or Central Greece , colloquially known as Roúmeli , is a geographical region of Greece. Its territory is divided into the administrative regions of Central Greece, Attica, and part of West Greece...
, four of them in Epirus, Acarnania, and Aetolia, and three in Macedonia. Every kapetanio had his palikaria (παλικάρια). Among these palikaria, the best recognized leader, secretary, and sometimes successor of the kapetanio was deemed protopalikaro (πρωτοπαλίκαρο). The palikaria would train with their weapons on a daily basis.
The main weapon the palikaria utilized was the kariofili (καριοφίλι). Marksmanship was the proverbial hallmark that defined the palikaria. They were also capable in the art of ambush
Ambush
An ambush is a long-established military tactic, in which the aggressors take advantage of concealment and the element of surprise to attack an unsuspecting enemy from concealed positions, such as among dense underbrush or behind hilltops...
ing and mobility. The palikaria were resilient toward thirst, hunger and even the painful difficulties in their encounters with the klephts.
The term klephtopolemos (κλεφτοπόλεμος) was used to name the strategies/tactics that both the klephts and armatoloi utilized. These tactics are used today for unconventional military campaigns by small guerrilla groups. The armatoloi would conduct campaigns during nighttime. This strategy was known as "going out to pagana" (έβγαιναν στην παγάνα). The armatoloi would usually do this when the klephts were coming out of their dens. The armatoloi would defend themselves in improvised forts (called meterizia; μετερίζια) against the guerrilla tactics utilized by the klephts (specifically known as klephtouria; κλεφτουριά). A general offensive campaign by the armatoloi was known as giourousi (γιουρούσι). During one of these campaigns, the armatoloi would make effective use of swords and warcries.
Before 1821
For the Ottomans, it became progressively more difficult for them to distinguish the armatoloi from the klephts. Both groups began to establish relations with one another under a common ethnic rubric. This collaboration was also based on mutual sentiments against foreign conquerors. Since both groups were armed and possessed military experience, they helped Greeks become better warriors before the advent of the Greek Revolution of 1821Greek War of Independence
The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution was a successful war of independence waged by the Greek revolutionaries between...
.
The first recorded appearance of collaborations between armatoloi and klephts goes back to 1585 during the wars fought between the Venetians
Republic of Venice
The Republic of Venice or Venetian Republic was a state originating from the city of Venice in Northeastern Italy. It existed for over a millennium, from the late 7th century until 1797. It was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in...
and the Ottomans. During this time, Theodoros Boua-Grivas incited an insurrection in Acarnania
Acarnania
Acarnania is a region of west-central Greece that lies along the Ionian Sea, west of Aetolia, with the Achelous River for a boundary, and north of the gulf of Calydon, which is the entrance to the Gulf of Corinth. Today it forms the western part of the prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania. The capital...
and Epirus
Epirus
The name Epirus, from the Greek "Ήπειρος" meaning continent may refer to:-Geographical:* Epirus - a historical and geographical region of the southwestern Balkans, straddling modern Greece and Albania...
with armatoloi Poulios Drakos and Malamos from Epirus. The Sublime Port continued to have trust in armed groups such as the armatoloi up until 1684. During that year, the bodyguards of the Port, the armatoloi, became carriers of ethnic-oriented ideas. Prominent armatoloi from the 17th century were Soumilas (Σουμίλας), Meintanis (Μεϊντάνης), Livinis (Λιβίνης), Kourmas (Κούρμας), the Balaorites (Βαλαωρίτες), etc. Though these individuals engaged in failed rebellions, their attempts became an inspiration for future armatoloi to follow.
Revolution of 1821
Since the 1770s the Russian EmpireRussian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
tried to inspire a rebellion in Greece (see Orlov Revolt
Orlov Revolt
The Orlov Revolt was a precursor to the Greek War of Independence , which saw a Greek uprising in the Peloponnese at the instigation of Count Orlov, commander of the Russian Naval Forces of the Russo-Turkish War...
). During these attempts many armatoloi took up arms. With the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, (an insurrection in which Russia had, for once, no involvement as an instigator or agitator) a number of prominent armatoloi abandoned any allegiance to the Ottoman state and formed the nucleus of the Greek land forces. Among them were Odysseas Androutsos
Odysseas Androutsos
Odysseas Androutsos ; was a hero of the Greek War of Independence.-Early life:He was born in Ithaca in 1788, however his family was from the village of Livanates in Phthiotis prefecture...
, Georgios Karaiskakis
Georgios Karaiskakis
Georgios Karaiskakis born Georgios Iskos was a famous Greek klepht, armatolos, military commander, and a hero of the Greek War of Independence.- Early life :...
, Athanasios Diakos
Athanasios Diakos
Athanasios Diakos , a Greek military commander during the Greek War of Independence and a national hero, was born Athanasios Nikolaos Massavetas in the village of Ano Mousounitsa, Phocis.-Early life:...
, and Markos Botsaris
Markos Botsaris
Markos Botsaris was a Souliote captain and a hero of the War of Greek Independence. Markos Botsaris is among the most revered national heroes in Greece.-Early life:...
. There were armatoloi (such as Karaiskakis) that were initially employed by Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha
Ali Pasha of Tepelena or of Yannina, surnamed Aslan, "the Lion", or the "Lion of Yannina", Ali Pashë Tepelena was an Ottoman Albanian ruler of the western part of Rumelia, the Ottoman Empire's European territory which was also called Pashalik of Yanina. His court was in Ioannina...
, and of whom some fought with him against the Ottomans. In 1820, when Ali declared his territory’s withdrawal from Ottoman influence, he depended heavily on the Greek armatoloi to help him. Though Ali’s insurrection failed, this bold experiment did not weaken the ability of the armatoloi to fight for independence and contribute to the Greek Revolution.
Famous Armatoloi
- Theodoros KolokotronisTheodoros KolokotronisTheodoros Kolokotronis was a Greek Field Marshal and one of the leaders of the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire....
- Georgios KaraiskakisGeorgios KaraiskakisGeorgios Karaiskakis born Georgios Iskos was a famous Greek klepht, armatolos, military commander, and a hero of the Greek War of Independence.- Early life :...
- Odysseas AndroutsosOdysseas AndroutsosOdysseas Androutsos ; was a hero of the Greek War of Independence.-Early life:He was born in Ithaca in 1788, however his family was from the village of Livanates in Phthiotis prefecture...
- Athanasios DiakosAthanasios DiakosAthanasios Diakos , a Greek military commander during the Greek War of Independence and a national hero, was born Athanasios Nikolaos Massavetas in the village of Ano Mousounitsa, Phocis.-Early life:...
- Giorgakis OlympiosGiorgakis OlympiosGiorgakis Olympios was a Greek armatolos and military commander during the Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire. Noted for his activities with the Filiki Eteria in the Danubian Principalities, he is considered to be a leading figure of the Greek Revolution.-Early activities:He was...
Sources
- Diamantopoulos, N., Kyriazopoulou, A., "Elliniki Istoria Ton Neoteron Hronon", OEDB, (1980).
- Brewer, David, "The Greek War of Independence", The Overlook Press (2001). ISBN 1-58567-172-X.
- Paroulakis, Peter H., "The Greeks: Their Struggle For Independence", Hellenic International Press (1984). ISBN 0-9590894-1-1.
- Stratiki, Poti, "To Athanato 1821", Stratikis Bros, (1990). ISBN 960-7261-50-X.
- Vacalopoulos, Apostolis. The Greek Nation, 1453-1669. Rutgers University Press, 1976.