Anti-Apartheid Movement
Encyclopedia
Anti-Apartheid Movement (AAM), originally known as the Boycott Movement, was a British organization that was at the center of the international movement opposing South Africa's system of apartheid and supporting South Africa's Blacks.
on 26 June 1959 at a meeting of South Africa
n exiles and their supporters .
Julius Nyerere
would summarize its purpose:
triggered an intensification of action. The response was the transformation of the organization. It was decided to rename the group as Anti-Apartheid Movement and instead of just a consumer boycott the group would now "co-ordinate all the anti-apartheid work and to keep South Africa's apartheid policy in the forefront of British politics." The member organizations were diverse and included the British Communist, Liberal and Labour Parties, as well as the Trade Union Congress (TUC), individual MPs, the NUS, several churches, and other non-governmental organisations working against apartheid.
At the time, the United Kingdom
was South Africa's largest foreign investor and the ANC
was still committed to peaceful resistance. Armed struggle through Umkhonto we Sizwe
would only begin a year later.
Based in Ruskin House
, the organisation published the newspaper Boycott News. It organized public meetings in support of the African National Congress
and the Pan Africanist Congress.
It was no longer limited to just South Africa. The AAM supported the struggles for freedom in Namibia
, Zimbabwe
and the former Portuguese colonies of Angola
, Mozambique
and, in West Africa, Guinea-Bissau
.
. The AAM found willing allies in the Afro-Asian and Caribbean Commonwealth member states. Additional pressure was added by the involvement of Labour MP Barbara Castle who led a 72 hour vigil outside the 1961 Commonwealth Conference being held in London. The efforts were met with success when Verwoerd, the Prime Minister of South Africa at the time, issued a proclamation of the Republic in May 1961 announcing that South Africa was withdrawing its Commonwealth membership renewal application.
Campuses United Against Apartheid (CUAA)
Ramon Amadeo Sevilla was one of the original five member steering committee of Campuses United Against Apartheid which began on the University of California Campus and spanned the years of 1977 untill the end of the Aparthied Government of
South Africa. Sevilla travelled to University and Collage Campuses throughout the United States and Canada and not only was responsible for the movement within the Collage and University Systems in the United States and Canada that motivated over 8493 Collages and Universities to divest their investments in Companies doing business with the Govenment of South Africa, but he became a successful liason with major Labor Unions including the AFL-CIO, ILWU, the Ironworkers Unions, Teachers Unions, Nurses and Public Employee Union and the successful efforts in the divestment of Union Funds in Investments in Companies doing Business with the Government of South Africa, Mr. Sevilla was also one of the first Human Rights Activists to successfully get the ILWU to Boycott the Loading and Unloading of all ships entering or leaving North American Ports during the Apartheid Reigeme of South Africa. In a historic speach given to the Regents of the University of California in a regularly held and documented Trustees Meeting of the University of California Board Of Trustees, Mr Sevilla cited over 72 violations of University of California code in reference to the negation of the Board of Trustees Fiduciary Responsibilities violating ethical conduct on behalf of the Board of Trustees, then State of California Governor and Board of Trustee Member Gov. Jerry Brown in his first term as California State Govenor, gave Mr Sevilla a standing ovation on the conclusion of his moving speach (re-minutes of the Unitversity of California Board of Trustees Special Meeting) Mr Sevilla also led 57 students and faculty in the takeover of University of California Berkeley Administration Buildings in Protest of the University's Investments in Companies doing business with and in the Aparthied ruled South Africa, and became one of the first individuals in the history of the United States to have his Civil Disobidience Case dismissed by the United States Courts stating that he in fact had a right to act in Civil Disobidiance in the Take Over of University Property to Protest what he claimed was the illegal investment activities of the Universtiy of California. No other individual has had a Civil Disobidiance case legitimatly dismissed because it was found to be a legitimate form of protest, not even in the Civil Rights or Free Speach Movement. (Ref Alameda County Superior Court/Berkeley Municple Court Californa U.S.A) Ramon Sevilla - youngest Human Rights Commissionar to be appointed in the History of the United States.
passed Resolution 1761
, a non-binding resolution establishing the United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid and called for imposing economic and other sanctions on South Africa. All Western nations refused to join the committee as members. This boycott of a committee, the first such boycott, happened because it was created by the same General Assembly resolution that called for economic and other sanctions on South Africa, which at the time the West strongly opposed.
Following this passage of this resolution the Anti-Apartheid Movement spearheaded the arrangements for international conference on sanctions to be held in London in April 1964. According to Lisson, "The aim of the Conference was to work out the practicability of economic sanctions and their implications on the economies of South Africa, the UK, the US and the Protectorates. Knowing that the strongest opposition to the application of sanctions came from the West (and within the West, the UK), the Committee made every effort to attract as wide and varied a number of speakers and participants as possible so that the Conference findings would be regarded as objective."
The conference was named the International Conference for Economic Sanctions Against South Africa. Lisson writes:
The AAM was enthusiastic with the results of the conference for two key reasons. First, because of "the new seriousness with which the use of economic sanctions is viewed." Second, because the AAM was able to meet for the first time with the UN Special Committee on Apartheid, a meeting that established a long-lasting working relationship between the two parties.
The conference was not successful in persuading the UK to take up economic sanctions against South African though. Rather, the British government "remained firm in its view that the imposition of sanctions would be unconstitutional 'because we do not accept that this situation in South Africa constitutes a threat to international peace and security and we do not in any case believe that sanctions would have the effect of persuading the South African Government to change its policies'."
.
The Anti-Apartheid movement was popularized by the award winning video The Fight for Justice, produced by the independent film company Mrs. Shannon's Class
A consumer boycott organization
In response to an appeal by Albert Luthuli, the Boycott Movement was founded in LondonLondon
London is the capital city of :England and the :United Kingdom, the largest metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by most measures. Located on the River Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia, its history going back to its...
on 26 June 1959 at a meeting of South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
n exiles and their supporters .
Julius Nyerere
Julius Nyerere
Julius Kambarage Nyerere was a Tanzanian politician who served as the first President of Tanzania and previously Tanganyika, from the country's founding in 1961 until his retirement in 1985....
would summarize its purpose:
We are not asking you, the British people, for anything special. We are just asking you to withdraw your support from apartheid by not buying South African goods.
.
Expansion and renaming
Just 8 months after the Boycott Movement was founded, the Sharpeville massacreSharpeville massacre
The Sharpeville Massacre occurred on 21 March 1960, at the police station in the South African township of Sharpeville in the Transvaal . After a day of demonstrations, at which a crowd of black protesters far outnumbered the police, the South African police opened fire on the crowd, killing 69...
triggered an intensification of action. The response was the transformation of the organization. It was decided to rename the group as Anti-Apartheid Movement and instead of just a consumer boycott the group would now "co-ordinate all the anti-apartheid work and to keep South Africa's apartheid policy in the forefront of British politics." The member organizations were diverse and included the British Communist, Liberal and Labour Parties, as well as the Trade Union Congress (TUC), individual MPs, the NUS, several churches, and other non-governmental organisations working against apartheid.
At the time, the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
was South Africa's largest foreign investor and the ANC
African National Congress
The African National Congress is South Africa's governing Africanist political party, supported by its tripartite alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions and the South African Communist Party , since the establishment of non-racial democracy in April 1994. It defines itself as a...
was still committed to peaceful resistance. Armed struggle through Umkhonto we Sizwe
Umkhonto we Sizwe
Umkhonto we Sizwe , translated "Spear of the Nation," was the armed wing of the African National Congress which fought against the South African apartheid government. MK launched its first guerrilla attacks against government installations on 16 December 1961...
would only begin a year later.
Based in Ruskin House
Ruskin House
For the re-generation plan for the centre of Croydon, see Ruskin SquareRuskin House, situated in its own grounds on Coombe Road, Croydon, South London, has been an important centre of Britain's progressive movements for a century...
, the organisation published the newspaper Boycott News. It organized public meetings in support of the African National Congress
African National Congress
The African National Congress is South Africa's governing Africanist political party, supported by its tripartite alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions and the South African Communist Party , since the establishment of non-racial democracy in April 1994. It defines itself as a...
and the Pan Africanist Congress.
It was no longer limited to just South Africa. The AAM supported the struggles for freedom in Namibia
Namibia
Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia , is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March...
, Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia and a tip of Namibia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three...
and the former Portuguese colonies of Angola
Angola
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola , is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean with Luanda as its capital city...
, Mozambique
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
and, in West Africa, Guinea-Bissau
Guinea-Bissau
The Republic of Guinea-Bissau is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Senegal to the north, and Guinea to the south and east, with the Atlantic Ocean to its west....
.
Commonwealth membership
The AAM scored its first major victory when it set upon the idea of forcing the exclusion of South Africa from the CommonwealthCommonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
. The AAM found willing allies in the Afro-Asian and Caribbean Commonwealth member states. Additional pressure was added by the involvement of Labour MP Barbara Castle who led a 72 hour vigil outside the 1961 Commonwealth Conference being held in London. The efforts were met with success when Verwoerd, the Prime Minister of South Africa at the time, issued a proclamation of the Republic in May 1961 announcing that South Africa was withdrawing its Commonwealth membership renewal application.
Olympic participation
Abdul Minty, who Lisson describes was the AAM representative, presented the International Olympic Committee in 1962 with material about racialism in South African sport. The result was a ruling that excluded South Africa from Olympic participation.Campuses United Against Apartheid
Author Office of Congressman Ronald V. Dellums Ramon Amadeo SevillaCampuses United Against Apartheid (CUAA)
Ramon Amadeo Sevilla was one of the original five member steering committee of Campuses United Against Apartheid which began on the University of California Campus and spanned the years of 1977 untill the end of the Aparthied Government of
South Africa. Sevilla travelled to University and Collage Campuses throughout the United States and Canada and not only was responsible for the movement within the Collage and University Systems in the United States and Canada that motivated over 8493 Collages and Universities to divest their investments in Companies doing business with the Govenment of South Africa, but he became a successful liason with major Labor Unions including the AFL-CIO, ILWU, the Ironworkers Unions, Teachers Unions, Nurses and Public Employee Union and the successful efforts in the divestment of Union Funds in Investments in Companies doing Business with the Government of South Africa, Mr. Sevilla was also one of the first Human Rights Activists to successfully get the ILWU to Boycott the Loading and Unloading of all ships entering or leaving North American Ports during the Apartheid Reigeme of South Africa. In a historic speach given to the Regents of the University of California in a regularly held and documented Trustees Meeting of the University of California Board Of Trustees, Mr Sevilla cited over 72 violations of University of California code in reference to the negation of the Board of Trustees Fiduciary Responsibilities violating ethical conduct on behalf of the Board of Trustees, then State of California Governor and Board of Trustee Member Gov. Jerry Brown in his first term as California State Govenor, gave Mr Sevilla a standing ovation on the conclusion of his moving speach (re-minutes of the Unitversity of California Board of Trustees Special Meeting) Mr Sevilla also led 57 students and faculty in the takeover of University of California Berkeley Administration Buildings in Protest of the University's Investments in Companies doing business with and in the Aparthied ruled South Africa, and became one of the first individuals in the history of the United States to have his Civil Disobidience Case dismissed by the United States Courts stating that he in fact had a right to act in Civil Disobidiance in the Take Over of University Property to Protest what he claimed was the illegal investment activities of the Universtiy of California. No other individual has had a Civil Disobidiance case legitimatly dismissed because it was found to be a legitimate form of protest, not even in the Civil Rights or Free Speach Movement. (Ref Alameda County Superior Court/Berkeley Municple Court Californa U.S.A) Ramon Sevilla - youngest Human Rights Commissionar to be appointed in the History of the United States.
Economic sanctions campaign
In November 1962, the United Nations General AssemblyUnited Nations General Assembly
For two articles dealing with membership in the General Assembly, see:* General Assembly members* General Assembly observersThe United Nations General Assembly is one of the five principal organs of the United Nations and the only one in which all member nations have equal representation...
passed Resolution 1761
UN General Assembly Resolution 1761
United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1761 was passed on 6 November 1962 in response to the racist policies of apartheid established by the South African Government.- Condemnation of apartheid :...
, a non-binding resolution establishing the United Nations Special Committee against Apartheid and called for imposing economic and other sanctions on South Africa. All Western nations refused to join the committee as members. This boycott of a committee, the first such boycott, happened because it was created by the same General Assembly resolution that called for economic and other sanctions on South Africa, which at the time the West strongly opposed.
Following this passage of this resolution the Anti-Apartheid Movement spearheaded the arrangements for international conference on sanctions to be held in London in April 1964. According to Lisson, "The aim of the Conference was to work out the practicability of economic sanctions and their implications on the economies of South Africa, the UK, the US and the Protectorates. Knowing that the strongest opposition to the application of sanctions came from the West (and within the West, the UK), the Committee made every effort to attract as wide and varied a number of speakers and participants as possible so that the Conference findings would be regarded as objective."
The conference was named the International Conference for Economic Sanctions Against South Africa. Lisson writes:
"The Conference established the necessity, the legality and the practicability of internationally organised sanctions against South Africa, whose policies were seen to have become a direct threat to peace and security in Africa and the world. Its findings also pointed out that in order to be effective, a programme of sanctions would need the active participation of Britain and the US, who were also the main obstacle to the implementation of such a policy."
The AAM was enthusiastic with the results of the conference for two key reasons. First, because of "the new seriousness with which the use of economic sanctions is viewed." Second, because the AAM was able to meet for the first time with the UN Special Committee on Apartheid, a meeting that established a long-lasting working relationship between the two parties.
The conference was not successful in persuading the UK to take up economic sanctions against South African though. Rather, the British government "remained firm in its view that the imposition of sanctions would be unconstitutional 'because we do not accept that this situation in South Africa constitutes a threat to international peace and security and we do not in any case believe that sanctions would have the effect of persuading the South African Government to change its policies'."
Making sanctions an election issue
The AAM tried to make sanctions an election issue in the 1964 General Election in the UK. Candidates were asked to state their position on economic sanctions and other punitive measures against the South African government. Most candidates who responded answered in the affirmative. After the Labour Party sweep to power though, commitment to the anti-apartheid cause dissipated. In short order, Labour Party leader Harold Wilson told the press that his Labour Party was "not in favour of trade sanctions partly because, even if fully effective, they would harm the people we are most concerned about - the Africans and those white South Africans who are having to maintain some standard of decency there." Even so, Lisson writes that the "AAM still hoped that the new Labour Government would be more sensitive to the demands of public opinion than the previous Government." But by the end of 1964, it was clear that the election of the Labour Party had made little difference in the governments overall unwillingness to imposing sanctions.Rejection by the West
Lisson summarizes the UN situation in 1964:"At the UN, Britain consistently refused to accept that the situation in South Africa fell under Chapter VII of the [United Nations] CharterChapter VII of the United Nations CharterChapter VII of the United Nations Charter sets out the UN Security Council's powers to maintain peace. It allows the Council to "determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression" and to take military and nonmilitary action to "restore international peace...
. Instead, in collaboration with the US, it worked for a carefully worded appeal on the RivoniaRivonia TrialThe Rivonia Trial was a trial that took place in South Africa between 1963 and 1964, in which ten leaders of the African National Congress were tried for 221 acts of sabotage designed to overthrow the apartheid system.-Origins:...
and other political trials to try to appease Afro-Asian countries and public opinion at home and abroad; by early 1965 the issue of sanctions had lost momentum."
Academic boycott campaign
The Anti-Apartheid Movement was instrumental in initiating in 1965 an academic boycott of South Africa. The declaration was signed by 496 university professors and lecturers from 34 British universities in protest against apartheid and associated violations of academic freedom. They made special reference to the issuance of banning orders against two South African academics Jack Simons and Eddie Roux, two well-known progressive academics.- "ACADEMIC BOYCOTT OF SOUTH AFRICA: DECLARATION BY BRITISH ACADEMICS, 1965
- We, the (undersigned) professors and lecturers in British universities in consultation with the Anti-Apartheid Movement:
- Protest against the bans imposed on Professors Simons and Roux;
- Protest against the practice of racial discrimination and its extension to higher education;
- Pledge that we shall not apply for or accept academic posts in South African universities which practise racial discrimination."
Co-operation with the United Nations
Faced with the failure to persuade the West to impose economic sanctions, in 1966 the AAM formulated a strategy whereby they would shift toward spearheading "an international campaign against apartheid under the auspices of the United Nations." AAM's proposed strategy was approved by the UN Special Committee on Apartheid and then by the General Assembly. This new partnership formed the basis for all future action against apartheid. The man originally responsible for the new strategy gives this summary:"The strategy was to press for a range of measures to isolate the regime, support the liberation movement and inform world public opinion; to continue pressing for effective sanctions as the only means for a peaceful solution, and at the same time to obtain action on other measures which could be decided by a majority vote in the General Assembly; to isolate the major trading partners of South Africa by persuading other Western countries to co-operate in action to the greatest feasible extent; and to find ways to promote public opinion and public action against apartheid, especially in the countries which were the main collaborators with the South African regime. This also meant that we built the broadest support for each measure, thereby welcoming co-operation rather than alienating governments and organisations which were not yet prepared to support sanctions or armed struggle."
After apartheid
The Anti-Apartheid Movement continued to operate in the UK until 1994. After the first democratic elections in South Africa, AAM changed its name to ACTSA: Action for Southern AfricaACTSA: Action for Southern Africa
ACTSA: Action for Southern Africa is the successor organisation to the Anti-Apartheid Movement in the UK. Established in 1994, ACTSA has since been campaigning with the people of southern Africa as they strive to build a better future; working for peace, democracy and development across the region...
.
The Anti-Apartheid movement was popularized by the award winning video The Fight for Justice, produced by the independent film company Mrs. Shannon's Class
Further reading
- The Anti-Apartheid Movement: A 40-year Perspective
- The Anti-Apartheid Movement, Britain and South Africa: Anti-Apartheid Protest vs Real Politik, Arianna Lisson, PhD Dissertation, September 15, 2000
- Bodleian Library's Catalogue of the archive of the Anti-Apartheid Movement
See also
- ACTSA: Action for Southern AfricaACTSA: Action for Southern AfricaACTSA: Action for Southern Africa is the successor organisation to the Anti-Apartheid Movement in the UK. Established in 1994, ACTSA has since been campaigning with the people of southern Africa as they strive to build a better future; working for peace, democracy and development across the region...
- Apartheid
- Disinvestment from South AfricaDisinvestment from South AfricaDisinvestment from South Africa was first advocated in the 1960s, in protest of South Africa's system of Apartheid, but was not implemented on a significant scale until the mid 1980s...
- Academic boycotts of South AfricaAcademic boycotts of South AfricaThe academic boycott of South Africa consisted of series of boycotts of South African academic institutions and scholars initiated in the 1960s, at the request of the African National Congress, with the goal of using such international pressure to force the end South Africa's system of apartheid...
- Paul BlomfieldPaul BlomfieldPaul Blomfield is a British Labour Party politician who has been the Member of Parliament for Sheffield Central since 2010. Twice Sabbatical President of the Students' Union at St John's College, York, he was also a member of the National Executive Committees of both the National Union of...
- Barbara CastleBarbara CastleBarbara Anne Castle, Baroness Castle of Blackburn , PC, GCOT was a British Labour Party politician....
- Black SashBlack SashThe Black Sash was a non-violent white women's resistance organization founded in 1955 in South Africa by Jean Sinclair. The Black Sash initially campaigned against the removal of Coloured or mixed race voters from the voters' roll in the Cape Province by the National Party government...
- Ruth FirstRuth FirstRuth First was a white South African anti-apartheid activist and scholar born in Johannesburg, South Africa...
- John DiefenbakerJohn DiefenbakerJohn George Diefenbaker, PC, CH, QC was the 13th Prime Minister of Canada, serving from June 21, 1957, to April 22, 1963...
- Prime Minister of CanadaPrime Minister of CanadaThe Prime Minister of Canada is the primary minister of the Crown, chairman of the Cabinet, and thus head of government for Canada, charged with advising the Canadian monarch or viceroy on the exercise of the executive powers vested in them by the constitution...
who succeeded in having South Africa expelled from the Commonwealth of NationsCommonwealth of NationsThe Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
and further isolating the Apartheid regime - David Ennals
- Trevor HuddlestonTrevor HuddlestonErnest Urban Trevor Huddleston CR, KCMG was an English Anglican bishop. He was most well known for his anti-apartheid activism and his 'Prayer for Africa'...
- Bob Hughes, Robert Hughes, Baron Hughes of WoodsideRobert Hughes, Baron Hughes of WoodsideRobert Hughes, Baron Hughes of Woodside is a British Labour politician.Educated at Robert Gordon's College, Aberdeen and in South Africa where he lived 1947–1954, he worked as a draughtsman...
- Brian MulroneyBrian MulroneyMartin Brian Mulroney, was the 18th Prime Minister of Canada from September 17, 1984, to June 25, 1993 and was leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1983 to 1993. His tenure as Prime Minister was marked by the introduction of major economic reforms, such as the Canada-U.S...
- Prime Minister of CanadaPrime Minister of CanadaThe Prime Minister of Canada is the primary minister of the Crown, chairman of the Cabinet, and thus head of government for Canada, charged with advising the Canadian monarch or viceroy on the exercise of the executive powers vested in them by the constitution...
successfully enforced strict international economic sanctions against South Africa - Harold PinterHarold PinterHarold Pinter, CH, CBE was a Nobel Prize–winning English playwright and screenwriter. One of the most influential modern British dramatists, his writing career spanned more than 50 years. His best-known plays include The Birthday Party , The Homecoming , and Betrayal , each of which he adapted to...
- Randall RobinsonRandall RobinsonRandall Robinson is an African-American lawyer, author and activist, noted as the founder of TransAfrica. He is known particularly for his impassioned opposition to South African apartheid, and for his advocacy on behalf of Haitian immigrants and Haitian president Jean-Bertrand Aristide.-Early...
- Leon SullivanLeon SullivanLeon Howard Sullivan was a Baptist minister, a civil rights leader and social activist focusing on the creation of job training opportunities for African-Americans, a longtime General Motors Board Member, and an anti-Apartheid activist. Sullivan died on April 24, 2001, of leukemia at a Scottsdale,...
- David SteelDavid SteelDavid Martin Scott Steel, Baron Steel of Aikwood, KT, KBE, PC is a British Liberal Democrat politician who served as the Leader of the Liberal Party from 1976 until its merger with the Social Democratic Party in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats...
- Mike TerryMike TerryMike Terry is a music producer, recording engineer, and mixer residing in Los Angeles, California. Terry grew up in Kalamazoo, Michigan. Terry eventually moved west in the mid 90's and landed his first jobs at L.A.'s The Village, and Sound City recording studios as an assistant...
- United Democratic FrontUnited Democratic Front (South Africa)The United Democratic Front was one of the most important anti-apartheid organisations of the 1980s. The non-racial coalition of about 400 civic, church, students', workers' and other organisations was formed in 1983, initially to fight the just-introduced idea of the Tricameral Parliament The...
External links
- Librarians and Readers in the South African Anti-Apartheid Struggle. Lecture give by Archie Dick, George A. Miller Endowment Professor. January 30, 2007. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
- Letter of Anti-Apartheid Movement to Dr HF Verwoerd Dated March 4, 1961
- South Africa: Overcoming Apartheid, Building Democracyhttp://www.overcomingapartheid.msu.edu: A curricular resource for schools and colleges on the struggle to overcome apartheid and build democracy in South Africa, with 45 streamed interviews with South Africans in the struggle, many historical documents and photographs, and educational activities for teachers & students.
- African Activist Archivehttp://africanactivist.msu.edu/: An online archive of materials of the solidarity movement in the U.S.A. that supported the struggle against apartheid and for African freedom, including documents, posters, streamed interviews, t-shirts, photographs, campaign buttons, and remembrances.
- Community Video Education Trusthttp://www.cvet.org.za/: A digital archive of 90 hours of videos taken in South Africa in the late 1980s and early 1990s. This raw footage documents anti-apartheid demonstrations, speeches, mass funerals, celebrations, and interviews with activists that capture the activism of trade unions, students and political organizations, including the activities of the United Democratic Front.