Amulet MS 5236
Encyclopedia
MS 5236 is an ancient Greek
amulet
of the 6th century BC, which is unique in two respects: it is the only known magic amulet of the time inscribed with a text that was printed as opposed to incised, and it is the only extant specimen of ephesia grammata
made of gold
. The only partially comprehensible inscription is an invocation of the god Phoebus Apollo
and may have been composed in central Greece
or western Asia Minor
. As such magical amulets are known to have been mass-produced, the existence of MS 5236 indicates that, despite the singularity of the foil, block printing was practised in ancient Greece to a certain degree.
Schøyen Collection, where it was studied by the British classicist Dominic Montserrat
. The printing technique of the inscription was specifically analysed by the German typographer Herbert Brekle in 2010.
MS 5236 is made of a thin, rectangular gold sheet of 2.8 x 9.0 x 0.1 cm, which is inscribed on one side. The ancient Greek text comprises six lines written from left to right; margins all around the text body suggest that its contents are fully preserved. The surface of the gold foil is marked by many small creases that have grown together into cracks. Unlike later amulets, it appears to have never been rolled up or folded for personal use.
analysis of the letterform
indicates an early, archaic date. The script used does not clearly match any local variant of the Greek alphabet
: certain letter shapes indicate an origin in Attica
or Euboea
, while other letters point to the ductus
common in western Asia Minor
, particularly that of Knidos
. Overall, the comparison with other early Greek documents suggests a creation of the text in the middle of the 6th century BC.
on the right), much of it remains incomprehensible due to grammatical and syntactical peculiarities, such as they were frequent in magical amulets, and some letter sequences cannot be made any sense of. Nonetheless, one can infer from the intelligible parts that the god Phoebus Apollo is being invoked in order to raise his arms against someone or something, probably to the advantage of the amulet owner. The wording does not correspond to any other ancient epigraphic and literary texts, providing further evidence that the gold foil is genuine and not a modern forgery.
According to Montserrat, important characteristics of MS 5236 most closely correspond to the ephesia grammata, magic amulets whose incantatory words were supposedly fixed in writing on the cult statue of Artemis
at Ephesus
, and which were carried on the body to ward off harm. Although these metal sheets circulated in the Greek world in huge numbers, only lead
examples have survived, rendering the gold foil among the ephesia grammata unique.
, into the metal foil.
The entire printing process is reconstructed by Brekle as follows: First, the inscription's text was engraved with an iron
stylus into an even copper
or bronze
block, with its letters facing the opposite direction and running from right to left. The displaced material rose up on both sides of the letter grooves forming two sharp, parallel ridges. In the second step, the inscribed side of the stamp
block was placed on the plane gold sheet and sufficient pressure, either manually or by hammering onto a plate laid on top, was exerted from above to transmit the text. What produced the print image were the ridges caused by the material displacement; these left shallow double lines in the foil, thus creating the text. The actual, sunken letter lines were not transferred during the imprinting procedure, since they did not enter the surface of the foil.
It is the existence of these fine double grooves on the gold lamella which provides the key for identifying MS 5236 as being printed and not written. Because it is a matter of mechanical necessity that the engraved letters appear with their raised double edges on the substrate
as parallel, sunken lines when being printed, as can be observed on the amulet. Thus, the inscription is a bas-relief, which was produced by a bas-relief stamp.Montserrat, in contrast, interprets MS 5236 as a high relief, which was created by relief printing. However, this assumption is—as Brekle states (p. 2–3)—flawed in several ways, as it was beyond the technical capabilities of the time to carve out the very delicate and fragile double lines in high relief from the stamp surface. Moreover, this procedure would have needed the high-relief stamp to be pressed through the gold foil from the reverse side—a method, however, by which the letter impressions would have appeared too blurred. The only possible remedy, namely the contouring of the letters by way of a prepared pad underneath, whose bas-relief forms correlate perfectly with those of the high-relief stamp, was not technically feasible then, either. This proves Montserrat's high-relief hypothesis to be untenable. If the text had been carved directly into the foil as with other amulets, the stylus could have left only simple lines. According to Brekle, the applied printing technique has much in common with the later method of drypoint etching
, by which an image is incised into a copper plate; however, unlike drypoint, MS 5236 is a colourless blind print.
A further indication for the use of a printing technique is the varying strength of the letters, which suggests that the surface of the lamella was not completely flat during printing. Thus, the outline of the letters, as to be expected with a print, appear in the slightly more elevated regions of the sheet (darker areas in the photo), more distinct than in the slightly deeper regions (lighter areas) that were not affected by the full force of the stamp. This can be observed particularly along the folds and in the last line where the edge of the foil was apparently slightly bent downwards while being printed. Consequently, the impressions of the letters appear less marked here. If the text had been directly inscribed with a stylus into the foil, these variations would not have occurred.
Regarding the stroke order of the letters on the stamp, it can be said that the Hasta, the mostly vertical main line, was normally executed before the Coda figures.
MS 5236 is an overall rare and possibly unique print from the early Greek era. Despite this, the widespread use of magical amulets indicates that such block prints were, at least from the present prototype, mass-produced at that time.
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
amulet
Amulet
An amulet, similar to a talisman , is any object intended to bring good luck or protection to its owner.Potential amulets include gems, especially engraved gems, statues, coins, drawings, pendants, rings, plants and animals; even words said in certain occasions—for example: vade retro satana—, to...
of the 6th century BC, which is unique in two respects: it is the only known magic amulet of the time inscribed with a text that was printed as opposed to incised, and it is the only extant specimen of ephesia grammata
Ephesia Grammata
Ephesia Grammata are Ancient Greek magical formulas attested from the 5th or 4th century BC. According to Pausanias the Lexicographer , their name derives from their being inscribed on the cult image of Artemis in Ephesus...
made of gold
Gold
Gold is a chemical element with the symbol Au and an atomic number of 79. Gold is a dense, soft, shiny, malleable and ductile metal. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. Chemically, gold is a...
. The only partially comprehensible inscription is an invocation of the god Phoebus Apollo
Phoebus Apollo
Phoebus Apollo may refer to*Apollo, a figure in Greek and Roman mythology*Parnassius phoebus, a swallowtail butterfly commonly known as the Phoebus Apollo...
and may have been composed in central Greece
Central Greece
Continental Greece or Central Greece , colloquially known as Roúmeli , is a geographical region of Greece. Its territory is divided into the administrative regions of Central Greece, Attica, and part of West Greece...
or western Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
. As such magical amulets are known to have been mass-produced, the existence of MS 5236 indicates that, despite the singularity of the foil, block printing was practised in ancient Greece to a certain degree.
Description
The lamella is registered under the inventory number MS 5236 by the private NorwegianNorway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
Schøyen Collection, where it was studied by the British classicist Dominic Montserrat
Dominic Montserrat
Dominic Alexander Sebastian Montserrat was a British egyptologist and papyrologist.- Life :Montserrat studied Egyptology at Durham University and received his PhD in Classics at University College London, specializing in Greek, Coptic and Egyptian Papyrology. From 1992 to 1999 he taught Classics...
. The printing technique of the inscription was specifically analysed by the German typographer Herbert Brekle in 2010.
MS 5236 is made of a thin, rectangular gold sheet of 2.8 x 9.0 x 0.1 cm, which is inscribed on one side. The ancient Greek text comprises six lines written from left to right; margins all around the text body suggest that its contents are fully preserved. The surface of the gold foil is marked by many small creases that have grown together into cracks. Unlike later amulets, it appears to have never been rolled up or folded for personal use.
Origin and date
The palaeographicPalaeography
Palaeography, also spelt paleography is the study of ancient writing. Included in the discipline is the practice of deciphering, reading, and dating historical manuscripts, and the cultural context of writing, including the methods with which writing and books were produced, and the history of...
analysis of the letterform
Letterform
A letterform, letter-form or letter form, is a term used especially in typography, paleography, calligraphy and epigraphy to mean a letter's shape.In one sense, letterform applies strictly to the design of individual letters...
indicates an early, archaic date. The script used does not clearly match any local variant of the Greek alphabet
Greek alphabet
The Greek alphabet is the script that has been used to write the Greek language since at least 730 BC . The alphabet in its classical and modern form consists of 24 letters ordered in sequence from alpha to omega...
: certain letter shapes indicate an origin in Attica
Attica
Attica is a historical region of Greece, containing Athens, the current capital of Greece. The historical region is centered on the Attic peninsula, which projects into the Aegean Sea...
or Euboea
Euboea
Euboea is the second largest Greek island in area and population, after Crete. The narrow Euripus Strait separates it from Boeotia in mainland Greece. In general outline it is a long and narrow, seahorse-shaped island; it is about long, and varies in breadth from to...
, while other letters point to the ductus
Ductus (linguistics)
In linguistics, ductus refers to qualities and characteristics of writing or speaking instantiated in the act of speaking or the flow of writing the text...
common in western Asia Minor
Asia Minor
Asia Minor is a geographical location at the westernmost protrusion of Asia, also called Anatolia, and corresponds to the western two thirds of the Asian part of Turkey...
, particularly that of Knidos
Knidos
Knidos or Cnidus is an ancient settlement located in Turkey. It was an ancient Greek city of Caria, part of the Dorian Hexapolis. It was situated on the Datça peninsula, which forms the southern side of the Sinus Ceramicus, now known as Gulf of Gökova. By the fourth century BC, Knidos was located...
. Overall, the comparison with other early Greek documents suggests a creation of the text in the middle of the 6th century BC.
Inscription and use
Even though the Greek text is legible on the whole (see transcriptionTranscription (linguistics)
Transcription in the linguistic sense is the systematic representation of language in written form. The source can either be utterances or preexisting text in another writing system, although some linguists only consider the former as transcription.Transcription should not be confused with...
on the right), much of it remains incomprehensible due to grammatical and syntactical peculiarities, such as they were frequent in magical amulets, and some letter sequences cannot be made any sense of. Nonetheless, one can infer from the intelligible parts that the god Phoebus Apollo is being invoked in order to raise his arms against someone or something, probably to the advantage of the amulet owner. The wording does not correspond to any other ancient epigraphic and literary texts, providing further evidence that the gold foil is genuine and not a modern forgery.
According to Montserrat, important characteristics of MS 5236 most closely correspond to the ephesia grammata, magic amulets whose incantatory words were supposedly fixed in writing on the cult statue of Artemis
Artemis
Artemis was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities. Her Roman equivalent is Diana. Some scholars believe that the name and indeed the goddess herself was originally pre-Greek. Homer refers to her as Artemis Agrotera, Potnia Theron: "Artemis of the wildland, Mistress of Animals"...
at Ephesus
Ephesus
Ephesus was an ancient Greek city, and later a major Roman city, on the west coast of Asia Minor, near present-day Selçuk, Izmir Province, Turkey. It was one of the twelve cities of the Ionian League during the Classical Greek era...
, and which were carried on the body to ward off harm. Although these metal sheets circulated in the Greek world in huge numbers, only lead
Lead
Lead is a main-group element in the carbon group with the symbol Pb and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal. It is also counted as one of the heavy metals. Metallic lead has a bluish-white color after being freshly cut, but it soon tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed...
examples have survived, rendering the gold foil among the ephesia grammata unique.
Block print
The special significance of MS 5236 lies in the way the inscription was created. A close examination shows that a printing process was used to reproduce the Greek text on the lamella. In this, MS 5236 differs fundamentally from other amulets of the time, where the magic formulas were incised by hand, such as with a stylusStylus
A stylus is a writing utensil, or a small tool for some other form of marking or shaping, for example in pottery. The word is also used for a computer accessory . It usually refers to a narrow elongated staff, similar to a modern ballpoint pen. Many styli are heavily curved to be held more easily...
, into the metal foil.
The entire printing process is reconstructed by Brekle as follows: First, the inscription's text was engraved with an iron
Iron
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe and atomic number 26. It is a metal in the first transition series. It is the most common element forming the planet Earth as a whole, forming much of Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust...
stylus into an even copper
Copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; an exposed surface has a reddish-orange tarnish...
or bronze
Bronze
Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper, usually with tin as the main additive. It is hard and brittle, and it was particularly significant in antiquity, so much so that the Bronze Age was named after the metal...
block, with its letters facing the opposite direction and running from right to left. The displaced material rose up on both sides of the letter grooves forming two sharp, parallel ridges. In the second step, the inscribed side of the stamp
Stamp
A stamp is a distinctive mark or impression made upon an object, a device used to make it, or a distinctive sticker applied to an object. It may also include other vouchers or records with similar purposes...
block was placed on the plane gold sheet and sufficient pressure, either manually or by hammering onto a plate laid on top, was exerted from above to transmit the text. What produced the print image were the ridges caused by the material displacement; these left shallow double lines in the foil, thus creating the text. The actual, sunken letter lines were not transferred during the imprinting procedure, since they did not enter the surface of the foil.
It is the existence of these fine double grooves on the gold lamella which provides the key for identifying MS 5236 as being printed and not written. Because it is a matter of mechanical necessity that the engraved letters appear with their raised double edges on the substrate
Substrate (printing)
Substrate is a term used in converting process such as printing and Lamination or coating as a more general term to describe the base material onto which e.g. images will be printed and to be laminated as per the packing specification required for the product...
as parallel, sunken lines when being printed, as can be observed on the amulet. Thus, the inscription is a bas-relief, which was produced by a bas-relief stamp.Montserrat, in contrast, interprets MS 5236 as a high relief, which was created by relief printing. However, this assumption is—as Brekle states (p. 2–3)—flawed in several ways, as it was beyond the technical capabilities of the time to carve out the very delicate and fragile double lines in high relief from the stamp surface. Moreover, this procedure would have needed the high-relief stamp to be pressed through the gold foil from the reverse side—a method, however, by which the letter impressions would have appeared too blurred. The only possible remedy, namely the contouring of the letters by way of a prepared pad underneath, whose bas-relief forms correlate perfectly with those of the high-relief stamp, was not technically feasible then, either. This proves Montserrat's high-relief hypothesis to be untenable. If the text had been carved directly into the foil as with other amulets, the stylus could have left only simple lines. According to Brekle, the applied printing technique has much in common with the later method of drypoint etching
Drypoint
Drypoint is a printmaking technique of the intaglio family, in which an image is incised into a plate with a hard-pointed "needle" of sharp metal or diamond point. Traditionally the plate was copper, but now acetate, zinc, or plexiglas are also commonly used...
, by which an image is incised into a copper plate; however, unlike drypoint, MS 5236 is a colourless blind print.
A further indication for the use of a printing technique is the varying strength of the letters, which suggests that the surface of the lamella was not completely flat during printing. Thus, the outline of the letters, as to be expected with a print, appear in the slightly more elevated regions of the sheet (darker areas in the photo), more distinct than in the slightly deeper regions (lighter areas) that were not affected by the full force of the stamp. This can be observed particularly along the folds and in the last line where the edge of the foil was apparently slightly bent downwards while being printed. Consequently, the impressions of the letters appear less marked here. If the text had been directly inscribed with a stylus into the foil, these variations would not have occurred.
Regarding the stroke order of the letters on the stamp, it can be said that the Hasta, the mostly vertical main line, was normally executed before the Coda figures.
MS 5236 is an overall rare and possibly unique print from the early Greek era. Despite this, the widespread use of magical amulets indicates that such block prints were, at least from the present prototype, mass-produced at that time.
Sources
- Brekle, Herbert E.Herbert E. BrekleHerbert Ernst Brekle is a German typographer and linguist. Brekle's main research interests are semantics, word formation theory, history of linguistics, history of Western alphabets and typography.- Life :...
: "Analyse der Herstellungstechnik der Inschrift auf einem Goldamulett in der Schoyen Collection (London/Oslo)", publication of the University of Regensburg, university library, August 2010 - Montserrat, DominicDominic MontserratDominic Alexander Sebastian Montserrat was a British egyptologist and papyrologist.- Life :Montserrat studied Egyptology at Durham University and received his PhD in Classics at University College London, specializing in Greek, Coptic and Egyptian Papyrology. From 1992 to 1999 he taught Classics...
: "Report on Early Greek Gold Lamella", unpublished study