.gif)
Albert of Saxony (philosopher)
Encyclopedia
Albert of Saxony (c. 1320 – 8 July 1390) was a German philosopher known for his contributions to logic
and physics
. He was bishop of Halberstadt from 1366 until his death.
, the son of a farmer in a small village; but because of his talent, he was sent to study at the University of Prague
and the University of Paris
.
At Paris, he became a master of arts (a professor), and held this post from 1351 until 1362. In 1353, he was rector
of the University of Paris. After 1362, Albert went to the court of Pope Urban V
in Avignon
as an envoy of Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria
, in order to negotiate the founding of the University of Vienna
. The negotiations were successful, and Albert became the first rector of this University in 1365.
In 1366, Albert was elected bishop of Halberstadt (counted as Albert III), Halberstadt being the diocese in which he was born. As Bishop of Halberstadt, he allied himself with Magnus with the Necklace, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, against Gebhard of Berg, Bishop of Hildesheim, and was taken prisoner by Gebhard in the battle of Dinckler in 1367.
He died at Halberstadt
in 1390.
and was very much influenced by Buridan's teachings on physics and logic. As a natural philosopher, he worked in the tradition of John Buridan and contributed to the spread of Parisian natural philosophy throughout Italy
and central Europe. Albert's work in logic also shows strong influence by William of Ockham
, whose commentaries on the logica vetus (on Porphyry
, and Aristotle
's Categoriae and De interpretatione) were made the subject of a series of works called Quaestiones by Albert.
Albert of Saxony's teachings on logic and metaphysics were extremely influential. The Theory of impetus
introduced a third stage to the two stage theory of Avicenna
.
This theory was a precursor to the modern theory of inertia
.
Although Buridan remained the predominant figure in logic, Albert's Perutilis logica was destined to serve as a popular text because of its systematic nature and also because it takes up and develops essential aspects of the Ockhamist position. But it was his commentary on Aristotle
's Physics that was especially widely read. Many manuscripts of it can be found in France and Italy, in Erfurt and Prague. Albert's Physics basically guaranteed the transmission of the Parisian tradition in Italy, where it was authoritative along with the works of Heytesbury
and John Dumbleton
. His commentary on Aristotle's De caelo was also influential, eventually eclipsing Buridan's commentary on this text. Blasius of Parma read it in Bologna between 1379 and 1382. A little later, it enjoyed a wide audience at Vienna. His Treatise on Proportions was often quoted in Italy where, in addition to the texts of Bradwardine
and Oresme, it influenced the application of the theory of proportions to motion.
Albert played an essential role in the diffusion throughout Italy and central Europe of Parisian ideas which bore the mark of Buridan's teachings, but which were also clearly shaped by Albert's own grasp of English innovations. At the same time, Albert was not merely a compiler of the work of others. He knew how to construct proofs of undeniable originality on many topics in logic and physics.
Logic
In philosophy, Logic is the formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning. Logic is used in most intellectual activities, but is studied primarily in the disciplines of philosophy, mathematics, semantics, and computer science...
and physics
Physics
Physics is a natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.Physics is one of the oldest academic...
. He was bishop of Halberstadt from 1366 until his death.
Life
Albert was born at Rickensdorf near HelmstedtHelmstedt
Helmstedt is a city located at the eastern edge of the German state of Lower Saxony. It is the capital of the District of Helmstedt. Helmstedt has 26,000 inhabitants . In former times the city was also called Helmstädt....
, the son of a farmer in a small village; but because of his talent, he was sent to study at the University of Prague
Charles University in Prague
Charles University in Prague is the oldest and largest university in the Czech Republic. Founded in 1348, it was the first university in Central Europe and is also considered the earliest German university...
and the University of Paris
University of Paris
The University of Paris was a university located in Paris, France and one of the earliest to be established in Europe. It was founded in the mid 12th century, and officially recognized as a university probably between 1160 and 1250...
.
At Paris, he became a master of arts (a professor), and held this post from 1351 until 1362. In 1353, he was rector
Rector
The word rector has a number of different meanings; it is widely used to refer to an academic, religious or political administrator...
of the University of Paris. After 1362, Albert went to the court of Pope Urban V
Pope Urban V
Pope Urban V , born Guillaume Grimoard, was Pope from 1362 to 1370.-Biography:Grimoard was a native of Grizac in Languedoc . He became a Benedictine and a doctor in Canon Law, teaching at Montpellier and Avignon...
in Avignon
Avignon
Avignon is a French commune in southeastern France in the départment of the Vaucluse bordered by the left bank of the Rhône river. Of the 94,787 inhabitants of the city on 1 January 2010, 12 000 live in the ancient town centre surrounded by its medieval ramparts.Often referred to as the...
as an envoy of Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria
Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria
Rudolf IV der Stifter was a scion of the House of Habsburg and Duke of Austria and Duke of Styria and Carinthia from 1358, as well as Count of Tyrol from 1363 and first Duke of Carniola from 1364 until his death...
, in order to negotiate the founding of the University of Vienna
University of Vienna
The University of Vienna is a public university located in Vienna, Austria. It was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365 and is the oldest university in the German-speaking world...
. The negotiations were successful, and Albert became the first rector of this University in 1365.
In 1366, Albert was elected bishop of Halberstadt (counted as Albert III), Halberstadt being the diocese in which he was born. As Bishop of Halberstadt, he allied himself with Magnus with the Necklace, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, against Gebhard of Berg, Bishop of Hildesheim, and was taken prisoner by Gebhard in the battle of Dinckler in 1367.
He died at Halberstadt
Halberstadt
Halberstadt is a town in the German state of Saxony-Anhalt and the capital of the district of Harz. It is located on the German Half-Timbered House Road and the Magdeburg–Thale railway....
in 1390.
Philosophy
Albert was a pupil of Jean BuridanJean Buridan
Jean Buridan was a French priest who sowed the seeds of the Copernican revolution in Europe. Although he was one of the most famous and influential philosophers of the late Middle Ages, he is today among the least well known...
and was very much influenced by Buridan's teachings on physics and logic. As a natural philosopher, he worked in the tradition of John Buridan and contributed to the spread of Parisian natural philosophy throughout Italy
Italy
Italy , officially the Italian Republic languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Italy's official name is as follows:;;;;;;;;), is a unitary parliamentary republic in South-Central Europe. To the north it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and...
and central Europe. Albert's work in logic also shows strong influence by William of Ockham
William of Ockham
William of Ockham was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher, who is believed to have been born in Ockham, a small village in Surrey. He is considered to be one of the major figures of medieval thought and was at the centre of the major intellectual and political controversies of...
, whose commentaries on the logica vetus (on Porphyry
Porphyry (philosopher)
Porphyry of Tyre , Porphyrios, AD 234–c. 305) was a Neoplatonic philosopher who was born in Tyre. He edited and published the Enneads, the only collection of the work of his teacher Plotinus. He also wrote many works himself on a wide variety of topics...
, and Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
's Categoriae and De interpretatione) were made the subject of a series of works called Quaestiones by Albert.
Theory of impetus
The theory of impetus was an auxiliary or secondary theory of Aristotelian dynamics, put forth initially to explain projectile motion against gravity...
introduced a third stage to the two stage theory of Avicenna
Avicenna
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā , commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persian polymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived...
.
- Initial stage. Motion is in a straight line in direction of impetus which is dominant while gravity is insignificant
- Intermediate stage. Path begins to deviate downwards from straight line as part of a great circle as air resistance slows projectile and gravity recovers.
- Last stage. Gravity alone draws projectile downwards vertically as all impetus is spent.
This theory was a precursor to the modern theory of inertia
Inertia
Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to a change in its state of motion or rest, or the tendency of an object to resist any change in its motion. It is proportional to an object's mass. The principle of inertia is one of the fundamental principles of classical physics which are used to...
.
Although Buridan remained the predominant figure in logic, Albert's Perutilis logica was destined to serve as a popular text because of its systematic nature and also because it takes up and develops essential aspects of the Ockhamist position. But it was his commentary on Aristotle
Aristotle
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology...
's Physics that was especially widely read. Many manuscripts of it can be found in France and Italy, in Erfurt and Prague. Albert's Physics basically guaranteed the transmission of the Parisian tradition in Italy, where it was authoritative along with the works of Heytesbury
William Heytesbury
William Heytesbury , philosopher and logician, is best known as one of the Oxford Calculators of Merton College, where he was a fellow by 1330....
and John Dumbleton
John Dumbleton
John Dumbleton , one of the Oxford Calculators, was a Scholastic logician and natural philosopher at Merton College, Oxford, where he was a fellow by 1338...
. His commentary on Aristotle's De caelo was also influential, eventually eclipsing Buridan's commentary on this text. Blasius of Parma read it in Bologna between 1379 and 1382. A little later, it enjoyed a wide audience at Vienna. His Treatise on Proportions was often quoted in Italy where, in addition to the texts of Bradwardine
Thomas Bradwardine
Thomas Bradwardine was an English scholar, scientist, courtier and, very briefly, Archbishop of Canterbury. As a celebrated scholastic philosopher and doctor of theology, he is often called Doctor Profundus, .-Life:He was born either at Hartfield in Sussex or at Chichester, where his family were...
and Oresme, it influenced the application of the theory of proportions to motion.
Albert played an essential role in the diffusion throughout Italy and central Europe of Parisian ideas which bore the mark of Buridan's teachings, but which were also clearly shaped by Albert's own grasp of English innovations. At the same time, Albert was not merely a compiler of the work of others. He knew how to construct proofs of undeniable originality on many topics in logic and physics.
Works
- Perutilis Logica Magistri Alberti de Saxonia (Very Useful Logic), Venice 1522 and HildesheimHildesheimHildesheim is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is located in the district of Hildesheim, about 30 km southeast of Hanover on the banks of the Innerste river, which is a small tributary of the Leine river...
1974 (reproduction) - Albert of Saxony's twenty-five disputed questions on logic. A critical edition of his Quaestiones circa logicam / by Michael J. Fitzgerald, Leiden: Brill, 2002
- Quaestiones in artem veterem critical edition by Angel Muñoz Garcia, Maracaibo, Venezuela: Universidad del Zulia,1988
- Quaestiones on the Posterior Analytics
- Quaestiones logicales (Logical Questions)
- De consequentiis (On Consequences) - attributed
- De locis dialecticis (On Dialectical Topics) - attributed
- Sophismata et InsolubiliaInsolubiliaIn the Middle Ages, variations on the liar paradox were studied under the name of insolubilia .Although the liar paradox was well known in antiquity, interest seems to have lapsed until the twelfth century, when it appears to have been reinvented independently of ancient authors...
et Obligationes, Paris 1489 and HildesheimHildesheimHildesheim is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is located in the district of Hildesheim, about 30 km southeast of Hanover on the banks of the Innerste river, which is a small tributary of the Leine river...
1975 (reproduction) - Expositio et quaestiones in Aristotelis Physicam ad Albertum de Saxonia attributae critical edition by Benoit Patar, Leuven, Peeters Publishers, 1999
- Questiones subtilissime in libros Aristotelis de caelo et mundo, Venetiis, 1492. Questiones subtilissime super libros posteriorum, Venetiis 1497 HildesheimHildesheimHildesheim is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is located in the district of Hildesheim, about 30 km southeast of Hanover on the banks of the Innerste river, which is a small tributary of the Leine river...
1986 (reproduction) - Alberti de Saxonia Quæstiones in Aristotelis De cælo critical edition by Benoit Patar, Leuven, Peeters Publishers, 2008
- De latudinibus, PaduaPaduaPadua is a city and comune in the Veneto, northern Italy. It is the capital of the province of Padua and the economic and communications hub of the area. Padua's population is 212,500 . The city is sometimes included, with Venice and Treviso, in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, having...
1505 - De latitudinibus formarum
- De maximo et minimo
- De quadratura circuli - Question on the Squaring of the Circle
- Tractatus proportionum, Venice 1496 and Vienna 1971: editor Hubertus L. Busard
English translations
- Albert of Saxony, Quaestiones circa Logicam: Twenty-Five Disputed Questions on Logic, trans. Michael J. Fitzgerald, Dallas Medieval Texts and TranslationsDallas Medieval Texts and TranslationsDallas Medieval Texts and Translations is a book series sponsored by the and published by , a publishing house based in Louvain, Belgium. Modeled upon the Loeb Classical Library, the Dallas series has the goal "to build a library of medieval Latin texts, with English translations, from the period...
9 (Louvain and Paris: Peeters, 2010)
See also
- List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics
- All men are donkeys or men and donkeys are donkeys
Further reading
- Joel Biard (ed.), Itinéraires d’Albert de Saxe. Paris Vienne au XIVe siècle Paris, Vrin, 1991.