Agentes in rebus
Encyclopedia
The agentes in rebus were the late Roman imperial
courier
service and general agents of the central government from the 4th to the 7th centuries.
's reforms in the late 3rd century. The agentes replaced the earlier and much-detested frumentarii
, and fell under the jurisdiction of the magister officiorum
(Master of the Offices), hence their alternate Greek name of magistrianoi. As a result of the reforms of Diocletian, the frumentarii were disbanded. The central imperial administration still needed couriers, and the agentes in rebus filled this role. Originally they acted as the dispatch
carriers, but eventually assumed a variety of duties - the title itself translates as "Those who are Active in Matters". They survived into the Byzantine Empire
, being eventually abolished sometime in the early 8th century, as most of the magister's functions were taken over by the logothetēs tou dromou
. The last reference to an agens comes in the chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor
, where the magistrianos Paul is recorded as having been sent on an embassy in 678.
, their service was militarized, and considered a militia. Indeed, the agentes were divided into five ranks, taken from the junior cavalry officers: equites, circitores, biarchi, centenarii and ducenarii. Two were appointed to each province in 357, one in 395 and more again after 412. Each member of the agentes in rebus was normally promoted into other branches of the government. The Code of Justinian notes furthermore that the agentes enjoyed immunity from prosecution both civil and criminal, unless otherwise sanctioned by the Master of Offices. Senior agentes were regularly appointed to the post of princeps officii of the praetorian prefecture
s the urban prefectures and the dioeceses
, thus exercising control over these departments' bureaucracy and reducing its independence.
As for their function, the 6th-century historian Procopius
notes in his Secret History:
As the service handling communications and communications systems within the Empire, their duties included the supervision of the roads and inns of the cursus publicus
(public postal system), the carrying of letters, or verifying that a traveler was carrying the right warrant (evectio) while using the cursus. Other tasks included supervising the provincial bureaucracy and delivering Imperial commands, often staying in the area to ensure their implementation. Being outside the control of the provincial governors, some agentes, the curiosi were appointed as inspectors and acted as a sort of secret police. The 4th-century philosopher Libanius
accused them of gross misconduct, terrorizing and extorting the provincials, "sheep-dogs who had joined the wolf pack". Nevertheless, the vast majority operated quite openly, and the accusations of the agentes being a security police were certainly exaggerated. The numbers of the agentes did however tend towards inflation, and the corps was viewed with a measure of mistrust by the emperors, who repeatedly tried to regulate its size: 1,174 in the year 430 according to a law of Theodosius II
, and 1,248 under Leo I
(457-474). Imperial edicts also regulated their promotion, which was to be strictly on seniority, with the annual exception of two officers, whom the emperor could advance at his pleasure.
They were used to supervise the arrest of senior officials as required, to escort senior Romans into exile (such as John Chrysostom
in 404), and even to assist in the enforcement of government regulation of the church. Ammianus Marcellinus
and Procopius also noted their use as ambassadors on several occasions. As their routine assignments brought them into contact with matters of great concern to the court, and as they also reported back to the court on everything they saw or heard on their varied missions, the agentes can be seen to have had an intelligence
function, in the broadest modern sense of the term. Further duties assigned to the agentes included the role of customs officers, the supervision of public works and the billeting of soldiers.
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
courier
Courier
A courier is a person or a company who delivers messages, packages, and mail. Couriers are distinguished from ordinary mail services by features such as speed, security, tracking, signature, specialization and individualization of express services, and swift delivery times, which are optional for...
service and general agents of the central government from the 4th to the 7th centuries.
History
The exact date of their institution is unknown. They are first mentioned in 319, but may date to DiocletianDiocletian
Diocletian |latinized]] upon his accession to Diocletian . c. 22 December 244 – 3 December 311), was a Roman Emperor from 284 to 305....
's reforms in the late 3rd century. The agentes replaced the earlier and much-detested frumentarii
Frumentarii
Frumentarii acted as the secret service of the Roman Empire. There are two main sources of information about the frumentarii, inscriptions on gravestones and anecdotes where the actions of individual frumentarii are mentioned by historians. From what is known of the Frumentarii, they always worked...
, and fell under the jurisdiction of the magister officiorum
Magister officiorum
The magister officiorum was one of the most senior administrative officials in the late Roman Empire and the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire...
(Master of the Offices), hence their alternate Greek name of magistrianoi. As a result of the reforms of Diocletian, the frumentarii were disbanded. The central imperial administration still needed couriers, and the agentes in rebus filled this role. Originally they acted as the dispatch
Dispatch
Dispatch or dispatches may refer to:In literature* Dispatches , a 1977 book by Michael Herr about the Vietnam War* dispatches , a magazine edited by Gary Knight and Mort RosenblumIn radio and television...
carriers, but eventually assumed a variety of duties - the title itself translates as "Those who are Active in Matters". They survived into the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
, being eventually abolished sometime in the early 8th century, as most of the magister's functions were taken over by the logothetēs tou dromou
Logothetes tou dromou
The logothetēs tou dromou , in English usually rendered as Logothete of the Course/Drome/Dromos or Postal Logothete, was the head of the department of the Dromos, the Public Post , and one of the most senior ministers of the Byzantine Empire.- History and functions :The exact origin and date of...
. The last reference to an agens comes in the chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor
Theophanes the Confessor
Saint Theophanes Confessor was a member of the Byzantine aristocracy, who became a monk and chronicler. He is venerated on March 12 in the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Church .-Biography:Theophanes was born in Constantinople of wealthy and noble iconodule parents: Isaac,...
, where the magistrianos Paul is recorded as having been sent on an embassy in 678.
Organization and function
The agentes in rebus were formed into a schola of the palace, and in common with other public services of the DominateDominate
The Dominate was the "despotic" latter phase of government in the ancient Roman Empire from the conclusion of the Third Century Crisis of 235–284 until the formal date of the collapse of the Western Empire in AD 476. It followed the period known as the Principate...
, their service was militarized, and considered a militia. Indeed, the agentes were divided into five ranks, taken from the junior cavalry officers: equites, circitores, biarchi, centenarii and ducenarii. Two were appointed to each province in 357, one in 395 and more again after 412. Each member of the agentes in rebus was normally promoted into other branches of the government. The Code of Justinian notes furthermore that the agentes enjoyed immunity from prosecution both civil and criminal, unless otherwise sanctioned by the Master of Offices. Senior agentes were regularly appointed to the post of princeps officii of the praetorian prefecture
Praetorian prefecture
The praetorian prefecture was the largest administrative division of the late Roman Empire, above the mid-level dioceses and the low-level provinces. Praetorian prefectures originated in the reign of Constantine I The praetorian prefecture was the largest administrative division of the late Roman...
s the urban prefectures and the dioeceses
Roman diocese
A Roman or civil diocese was one of the administrative divisions of the later Roman Empire, starting with the Tetrarchy. It formed the intermediate level of government, grouping several provinces and being in turn subordinated to a praetorian prefecture....
, thus exercising control over these departments' bureaucracy and reducing its independence.
As for their function, the 6th-century historian Procopius
Procopius
Procopius of Caesarea was a prominent Byzantine scholar from Palestine. Accompanying the general Belisarius in the wars of the Emperor Justinian I, he became the principal historian of the 6th century, writing the Wars of Justinian, the Buildings of Justinian and the celebrated Secret History...
notes in his Secret History:
As the service handling communications and communications systems within the Empire, their duties included the supervision of the roads and inns of the cursus publicus
Cursus publicus
The cursus publicus was the state-run courier and transportation service of the Roman Empire, later inherited by the Byzantine Empire. It was created by Emperor Augustus to transport messages, officials, and tax revenues from one province to another...
(public postal system), the carrying of letters, or verifying that a traveler was carrying the right warrant (evectio) while using the cursus. Other tasks included supervising the provincial bureaucracy and delivering Imperial commands, often staying in the area to ensure their implementation. Being outside the control of the provincial governors, some agentes, the curiosi were appointed as inspectors and acted as a sort of secret police. The 4th-century philosopher Libanius
Libanius
Libanius was a Greek-speaking teacher of rhetoric of the Sophist school. During the rise of Christian hegemony in the later Roman Empire, he remained unconverted and regarded himself as a Hellene in religious matters.-Life:...
accused them of gross misconduct, terrorizing and extorting the provincials, "sheep-dogs who had joined the wolf pack". Nevertheless, the vast majority operated quite openly, and the accusations of the agentes being a security police were certainly exaggerated. The numbers of the agentes did however tend towards inflation, and the corps was viewed with a measure of mistrust by the emperors, who repeatedly tried to regulate its size: 1,174 in the year 430 according to a law of Theodosius II
Theodosius II
Theodosius II , commonly surnamed Theodosius the Younger, or Theodosius the Calligrapher, was Byzantine Emperor from 408 to 450. He is mostly known for promulgating the Theodosian law code, and for the construction of the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople...
, and 1,248 under Leo I
Leo I (emperor)
Leo I was Byzantine Emperor from 457 to 474. A native of Dacia Aureliana near historic Thrace, he was known as Leo the Thracian ....
(457-474). Imperial edicts also regulated their promotion, which was to be strictly on seniority, with the annual exception of two officers, whom the emperor could advance at his pleasure.
They were used to supervise the arrest of senior officials as required, to escort senior Romans into exile (such as John Chrysostom
John Chrysostom
John Chrysostom , Archbishop of Constantinople, was an important Early Church Father. He is known for his eloquence in preaching and public speaking, his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, and his ascetic...
in 404), and even to assist in the enforcement of government regulation of the church. Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus was a fourth-century Roman historian. He wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from Antiquity...
and Procopius also noted their use as ambassadors on several occasions. As their routine assignments brought them into contact with matters of great concern to the court, and as they also reported back to the court on everything they saw or heard on their varied missions, the agentes can be seen to have had an intelligence
Intelligence (information gathering)
Intelligence assessment is the development of forecasts of behaviour or recommended courses of action to the leadership of an organization, based on a wide range of available information sources both overt and covert. Assessments are developed in response to requirements declared by the leadership...
function, in the broadest modern sense of the term. Further duties assigned to the agentes included the role of customs officers, the supervision of public works and the billeting of soldiers.