Aelfwald of East Anglia
Encyclopedia
Ælfwald was a 8th-century king of East Anglia, an Anglo-Saxon
kingdom that today includes the English counties of Norfolk
and Suffolk
. The last king of the Wuffingas dynasty, Ælfwald succeeded his father Ealdwulf
, who had ruled for forty-nine years. Ælfwald himself ruled for thirty-six years. Their combined reigns, with barely any record of external military action or internal dynastic strife, represent a long period of peaceful stability for the East Angles. In Ælfwald's time this was probably owing to a number of factors, including the settled nature of East Anglian ecclesiastical affairs and the prosperity brought through Rhineland
commerce with the East Anglian port of Gipeswic (modern Ipswich
). The coinage of Anglo-Saxon sceattas expanded in Ælfwald's time: evidence of East Anglian mints, markets, and industry are suggested where concentrations of such coins have been discovered.
After returning from exile, Æthelbald of Mercia succeeded Coelred
and afterwards endowed the church at Crowland
. Ælfwald's friendly stance towards Æthelbald helped to maintain peaceful relations with his more powerful neighbour. The Life of Guthlac, which includes information about Æthelbald during his period of exile at Crowland, is dedicated to Ælfwald. Later versions of the Life reveal the high quality of written Old English produced in East Anglia during Ælfwald's reign. He was a literate and devoutly Christian king: his letter written to Boniface
in around 747 reveals his diplomatic skills and gives a rare glimpse into the life of a ruler who is shrouded in obscurity.
brings the descent down to Ælfwald, indicating that it was compiled for him, possibly by around 726. The succession shows Ælfwald (son or affiliate of) Ealdwulf, of Ethilric, of Eni
, of Tyttla
, of Wuffa
, of Wehha
, of Wilhelm, of Hryp, of Hrothmund, of Trygil, of Tyttman, of Caser (Caesar
), of Woden
. The Historia Brittonum, which was probably compiled in the early 9th century, also has a version (the de ortu regum Estanglorum) in descending order from a similar pedigree: "Woden genuit ('begat') Casser, who begat Titinon, who begat Trigil, who begat Rodmunt, who begat Rippan, who begat Guillem Guechan. He first ruled in Britain over the race of East Angles. Guecha begat Guffa, who begat Tydil, who begat Ecni, who begat Edric, who begat Aldul, who begat Elric". It is not certain whether the last name, Elric, is a mistake for Ælfwald or is referring to a different individual.
had dominion over both Lindsey
and Essex
. Ælfwald's sister Ecgburgh was abbess at Repton
in Derbyshire
and Ælfwald's upbringing was undoubtedly Christian in nature.
The following family tree shows the descendants of Eni, who was the paternal grandfather of Ælfwald. Kings of East Anglia, Kent and Mercia are coloured blue, green and red respectively:
's brother Eowa
. Æthelbald was driven to take refuge deep in the Fens
at Crowland, where Guthlac
, another descendant of the Mercian royal house, was living as a hermit. When Guthlac died in 714, Ælfwald's sister Ecgburgh provided a stone coffin for his burial. Ceolred died in 716, blaspheming and insane, according to his chroniclers. Penda's line became extinct (or disempowered) and Æthelbald emerged as king of Mercia.
Æthelbald lived until 757 and carried Mercian power to a new height. His debt to Crowland was not forgotten: soon after his accession he richly endowed a new church on the site where Guthlac had lived as a hermit. The first Life of Guthlac, written by the monk Felix, appeared soon after Guthlac's death. Nothing is known about Felix, although Bertram Colgrave has observed that he was a good scholar who evidently had access to works by Bede and Aldhelm, to a Life of Saint Fursey
and Latin works by Saint Jerome
, Saint Athanasius and Gregory the Great. Felix was either an East Anglian or was living in the kingdom when he wrote the book, which was written at the request of Ælfwald. In the Life, Felix portrays Æthelbald's exile at Crowland and asserts Ælfwald's right to rule in East Anglia. Two Old English verse versions
of the Life drawn on the work of Felix were written, which show the vigour of vernacular heroic and elegiac modes
in Ælfwald's kingdom.
has its origins in Ælfwald's East Anglia.
held the East Anglian see of Dommoc, following its division of in about 673, and during Ealdwulf's reign Æscwulf
succeeded Æcci. At the Council of Clofeshoh in 716, Heardred attended as Bishop of Dommoc, while Nothberht
was present as Bishop of Elmham, having succeeded Baduwine
.
During the 720s, Cuthwine became bishop of Dommoc. Cuthwine was known to Bede and is known to have travelled to Rome
, returning with a number of illuminated manuscript
s, including Life and Labours of Saint Paul: his library also included Prosper Tiro's Epigrammata and Sedulius
' Carmen Pachale. According to Bede, Ealdbeorht I
was Bishop of Dommoc and Headulacus
Bishop of Elmham in 731, but by 746 or 747, Heardred (II) had replaced Aldberct.
by a century. Excavation work at Ipswich has revealed that the town expanded out to become 50 hectares (123.6 acre) in size during Ælfwald's reign, when it was known as Gipeswic. It is generally considered that Gipeswic, as the trade capital of Ælfwald's kingdom, developed under the king's patronage.
A rectangular grid of streets linked the earlier quayside
town northwards to an ancient trackway that ran eastwards. The quay at Gipeswic also continued to develop in a form that was similar to the quayside at Dorestad
, south of the continental town of Utrecht
, which was perhaps its principal trading partner. Gipeswic's street grid, parts of which have survived, was subdivided into rectangular plots or insulae and new houses were built directly adjacent to metalled roads. The town's pottery industry, producing what has been known since the 1950s as 'Ipswich ware', gained its full importance at around this time.
The former church dedication to Saint Mildred is one that can be dated to the 740s, when Mildred's relics were translated at Minster-in-Thanet
by her successor abbess Eadburh
.
and Cambridge
. The R series, with bust and standard, derived from earlier Kentish types, is more densely distributed in central and eastern East Anglia, including the Ipswich area. According to Michael Metcalf, the 'R' series was also East Anglian, being minted at Gipeswic.
The letter, which is a response to Boniface who had requested his support, reveals Ælfwald's sound understanding of Latin
. Ælfwald's letter reassures Boniface that his name was being remembered by the East Angles: it contains an offer to exchange the names of their dead, so that mutual prayers could be read for them. According to Richard Hoggett, a phrase in the letter, 'in septenis monasteriorum nostorum sinaxis', has been interpreted incorrectly by historians to imply that there were at the time seven monasteries in Ælfwald's kingdom in which prayers were being read, a theory which has proved difficult for scolars to explain. Hoggett argues that the words in the phrase refer to the number of times that the monks offered praise during the monastic day and not to the number of monasteries then in existence. He points out that this interpretation was published by Haddan and Stubbs as long ago as 1869.
Anglo-Saxon
Anglo-Saxon may refer to:* Anglo-Saxons, a group that invaded Britain** Old English, their language** Anglo-Saxon England, their history, one of various ships* White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, an ethnicity* Anglo-Saxon economy, modern macroeconomic term...
kingdom that today includes the English counties of Norfolk
Norfolk
Norfolk is a low-lying county in the East of England. It has borders with Lincolnshire to the west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea coast and to the north-west the county is bordered by The Wash. The county...
and Suffolk
Suffolk
Suffolk is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in East Anglia, England. It has borders with Norfolk to the north, Cambridgeshire to the west and Essex to the south. The North Sea lies to the east...
. The last king of the Wuffingas dynasty, Ælfwald succeeded his father Ealdwulf
Ealdwulf of East Anglia
Ealdwulf or Aldwulf was an obscure King of East Anglia who reigned from 663 to around 713.Ealdwulf's reign of forty-nine years was extraordinary in length: only Ethelbald of Mercia's and Offa of Mercia's reigns are comparable...
, who had ruled for forty-nine years. Ælfwald himself ruled for thirty-six years. Their combined reigns, with barely any record of external military action or internal dynastic strife, represent a long period of peaceful stability for the East Angles. In Ælfwald's time this was probably owing to a number of factors, including the settled nature of East Anglian ecclesiastical affairs and the prosperity brought through Rhineland
Rhineland
Historically, the Rhinelands refers to a loosely-defined region embracing the land on either bank of the River Rhine in central Europe....
commerce with the East Anglian port of Gipeswic (modern Ipswich
Ipswich
Ipswich is a large town and a non-metropolitan district. It is the county town of Suffolk, England. Ipswich is located on the estuary of the River Orwell...
). The coinage of Anglo-Saxon sceattas expanded in Ælfwald's time: evidence of East Anglian mints, markets, and industry are suggested where concentrations of such coins have been discovered.
After returning from exile, Æthelbald of Mercia succeeded Coelred
Ceolred of Mercia
-Mercia at the end of the 7th century:By the end of the 7th century, England was almost entirely divided into kingdoms ruled by the Anglo-Saxons, who had come to Britain two hundred years earlier. The kingdom of Mercia occupied what is now the English Midlands, bordered by Northumbria to the...
and afterwards endowed the church at Crowland
Crowland
Crowland or Croyland is a small town in south Lincolnshire, England, positioned between Peterborough and Spalding, with two sites of historical interest.-Geography:...
. Ælfwald's friendly stance towards Æthelbald helped to maintain peaceful relations with his more powerful neighbour. The Life of Guthlac, which includes information about Æthelbald during his period of exile at Crowland, is dedicated to Ælfwald. Later versions of the Life reveal the high quality of written Old English produced in East Anglia during Ælfwald's reign. He was a literate and devoutly Christian king: his letter written to Boniface
Saint Boniface
Saint Boniface , the Apostle of the Germans, born Winfrid, Wynfrith, or Wynfryth in the kingdom of Wessex, probably at Crediton , was a missionary who propagated Christianity in the Frankish Empire during the 8th century. He is the patron saint of Germany and the first archbishop of Mainz...
in around 747 reveals his diplomatic skills and gives a rare glimpse into the life of a ruler who is shrouded in obscurity.
Pedigree
The East Anglian pedigree or tally in the Anglian collectionAnglian collection
The Anglian collection is a collection of Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies and regnal lists. These survive in four manuscripts; two of which now reside in the British Library...
brings the descent down to Ælfwald, indicating that it was compiled for him, possibly by around 726. The succession shows Ælfwald (son or affiliate of) Ealdwulf, of Ethilric, of Eni
Eni of East Anglia
Eni or Ennius was a member of the Wuffing family, the ruling dynasty of the Kingdom of East Anglia. He was the son of Tyttla and brother of Raedwald, both kings of East Anglia.There is no historical evidence that Eni ever ruled the East Angles himself...
, of Tyttla
Tytila of East Anglia
Tytila was a pagan king of East Anglia, an Anglo-Saxon kingdom which today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. Early sources, including Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, identify him as a member of the Wuffingas dynasty...
, of Wuffa
Wuffa of East Anglia
Wuffa is supposed to have ruled the East Angles from c. 571 to c. 578. East Anglia was a long-lived Anglo-Saxon kingdom which today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk....
, of Wehha
Wehha of East Anglia
Wehha was a pagan king of the East Angles who, if he actually existed, ruled the kingdom of East Anglia during the 6th century, at the time the kingdom was being established by migrants from the Jutland peninsula. Early sources identify him as a member of the Wuffingas dynasty, which became...
, of Wilhelm, of Hryp, of Hrothmund, of Trygil, of Tyttman, of Caser (Caesar
Caesar (title)
Caesar is a title of imperial character. It derives from the cognomen of Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator...
), of Woden
Woden
Woden or Wodan is a major deity of Anglo-Saxon and Continental Germanic polytheism. Together with his Norse counterpart Odin, Woden represents a development of the Proto-Germanic god *Wōdanaz....
. The Historia Brittonum, which was probably compiled in the early 9th century, also has a version (the de ortu regum Estanglorum) in descending order from a similar pedigree: "Woden genuit ('begat') Casser, who begat Titinon, who begat Trigil, who begat Rodmunt, who begat Rippan, who begat Guillem Guechan. He first ruled in Britain over the race of East Angles. Guecha begat Guffa, who begat Tydil, who begat Ecni, who begat Edric, who begat Aldul, who begat Elric". It is not certain whether the last name, Elric, is a mistake for Ælfwald or is referring to a different individual.
Accession
At Ælfwald's accession in 713, Ceolred of MerciaMercia
Mercia was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. It was centred on the valley of the River Trent and its tributaries in the region now known as the English Midlands...
had dominion over both Lindsey
Kingdom of Lindsey
Lindsey or Linnuis is the name of a petty Anglo-Saxon kingdom, absorbed into Northumbria in the 7th century.It lay between the Humber and the Wash, forming its inland boundaries from the course of the Witham and Trent rivers , and the Foss Dyke between...
and Essex
Kingdom of Essex
The Kingdom of Essex or Kingdom of the East Saxons was one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the so-called Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. It was founded in the 6th century and covered the territory later occupied by the counties of Essex, Hertfordshire, Middlesex and Kent. Kings of Essex were...
. Ælfwald's sister Ecgburgh was abbess at Repton
Repton
Repton is a village and civil parish on the edge of the River Trent floodplain in South Derbyshire, about north of Swadlincote. Repton is close to the county boundary with neighbouring Staffordshire and about northeast of Burton upon Trent.-History:...
in Derbyshire
Derbyshire
Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire. The northern part of Derbyshire overlaps with the Pennines, a famous chain of hills and mountains. The county contains within its boundary of approx...
and Ælfwald's upbringing was undoubtedly Christian in nature.
The following family tree shows the descendants of Eni, who was the paternal grandfather of Ælfwald. Kings of East Anglia, Kent and Mercia are coloured blue, green and red respectively:
Felix's 'Life of Guthlac'
Ceolred of Mercia's appropriation of monastic assets during his reign created disaffection amongst the Mercians. His persecuted a distant cousin, Æthelbald, the grandson of PendaPenda of Mercia
Penda was a 7th-century King of Mercia, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom in what is today the English Midlands. A pagan at a time when Christianity was taking hold in many of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, Penda took over the Severn Valley in 628 following the Battle of Cirencester before participating in the...
's brother Eowa
Eowa of Mercia
Eowa was a son of the Mercian king Pybba and a brother of the Mercian king Penda; according to the Historia Brittonum and the Annales Cambriae. These two sources state that Eowa was a king of the Mercians himself at the time of the Battle of Maserfield , in which he was killed, on August 5 of what...
. Æthelbald was driven to take refuge deep in the Fens
The Fens
The Fens, also known as the , are a naturally marshy region in eastern England. Most of the fens were drained several centuries ago, resulting in a flat, damp, low-lying agricultural region....
at Crowland, where Guthlac
Saint Guthlac
Saint Guthlac of Crowland was a Christian saint from Lincolnshire in England. He is particularly venerated in the Fens of eastern England.-Life:...
, another descendant of the Mercian royal house, was living as a hermit. When Guthlac died in 714, Ælfwald's sister Ecgburgh provided a stone coffin for his burial. Ceolred died in 716, blaspheming and insane, according to his chroniclers. Penda's line became extinct (or disempowered) and Æthelbald emerged as king of Mercia.
Æthelbald lived until 757 and carried Mercian power to a new height. His debt to Crowland was not forgotten: soon after his accession he richly endowed a new church on the site where Guthlac had lived as a hermit. The first Life of Guthlac, written by the monk Felix, appeared soon after Guthlac's death. Nothing is known about Felix, although Bertram Colgrave has observed that he was a good scholar who evidently had access to works by Bede and Aldhelm, to a Life of Saint Fursey
Saint Fursey
Saint Fursey was an Irish monk who did much to establish Christianity throughout the British Isles and particularly in East Anglia...
and Latin works by Saint Jerome
Saint Jerome
Saint Jerome is a Christian church father, best known for translating the Bible into Latin.Saint Jerome may also refer to:*Jerome of Pavia , Bishop of Pavia...
, Saint Athanasius and Gregory the Great. Felix was either an East Anglian or was living in the kingdom when he wrote the book, which was written at the request of Ælfwald. In the Life, Felix portrays Æthelbald's exile at Crowland and asserts Ælfwald's right to rule in East Anglia. Two Old English verse versions
Guthlac poems A and B
Guthlac A and Guthlac B are poems about a title hero, unique in that they are the only known poems in Old English written about a Mercian saint, Saint Guthlac, whose reputation as a plain-living hermit is well-known. Both are preserved in the Exeter Book, consecutively, because for a long time,...
of the Life drawn on the work of Felix were written, which show the vigour of vernacular heroic and elegiac modes
Mode (literature)
In literature, a mode is an employed method or approach, identifiable within a written work. As descriptive terms, form and genre are often used inaccurately instead of mode; for example, the pastoral mode is often mistakenly identified as a genre...
in Ælfwald's kingdom.
Beowulf
Sam Newton has proposed that the Old English heroic poem BeowulfBeowulf
Beowulf , but modern scholars agree in naming it after the hero whose life is its subject." of an Old English heroic epic poem consisting of 3182 alliterative long lines, set in Scandinavia, commonly cited as one of the most important works of Anglo-Saxon literature.It survives in a single...
has its origins in Ælfwald's East Anglia.
The king's bishops
Bishop ÆcciAcca of Dunwich
Æcci or Acca of Dunwich, was a medieval bishop of Dunwich. He was consecrated after 672, however, his death or end of episcopate is not known.-External links:*...
held the East Anglian see of Dommoc, following its division of in about 673, and during Ealdwulf's reign Æscwulf
Ascwulf
Ascwulf was a medieval Bishop of Dunwich. He was bishop in the 8th century, but it is not known exactly when he was consecrated or his date of death.-External links:*...
succeeded Æcci. At the Council of Clofeshoh in 716, Heardred attended as Bishop of Dommoc, while Nothberht
Northbertus
Northbertus was a medieval Bishop of Elmham.He was consecrated sometime before 706. He died sometime after 716.-External links:*...
was present as Bishop of Elmham, having succeeded Baduwine
Bedwinus
Bedwinus was a medieval Bishop of Elmham.He was consecrated in 673 or soon afterwards and died sometime after 693.-External links:*...
.
During the 720s, Cuthwine became bishop of Dommoc. Cuthwine was known to Bede and is known to have travelled to Rome
Rome
Rome is the capital of Italy and the country's largest and most populated city and comune, with over 2.7 million residents in . The city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, on the Tiber River within the Lazio region of Italy.Rome's history spans two and a half...
, returning with a number of illuminated manuscript
Illuminated manuscript
An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, such as decorated initials, borders and miniature illustrations...
s, including Life and Labours of Saint Paul: his library also included Prosper Tiro's Epigrammata and Sedulius
Sedulius
Sedulius may refer to:* Coelius Sedulius, Christian poet of the 5th century* Sedulius Scottus, grammarian of the 9th century...
' Carmen Pachale. According to Bede, Ealdbeorht I
Ealdbeorht I
Ealdbeorht was a medieval Bishop of Dunwich.He was consecrated sometime before 731 and died after that date.-References:...
was Bishop of Dommoc and Headulacus
Headulacus
Headulacus was a medieval Bishop of Elmham.He was consecrated before 731 and died sometime after that date.-External links:*...
Bishop of Elmham in 731, but by 746 or 747, Heardred (II) had replaced Aldberct.
- For more information on the episcopal sees and bishops of Dommoc and Elmham, see Bishop of DunwichBishop of DunwichThe Bishop of Dunwich is an episcopal title which was first used by an Anglo-Saxon bishop between the 7th and 9th centuries and is currently used by a suffragan bishop who assists a diocesan bishop. The title takes its name after Dunwich in the English county of Suffolk, which has now largely been...
and Bishop of Elmham
The development of the port at Gipeswic
Ipswich was the first East Anglian town to be created by the Anglo-Saxons, predating other new towns such as NorwichNorwich
Norwich is a city in England. It is the regional administrative centre and county town of Norfolk. During the 11th century, Norwich was the largest city in England after London, and one of the most important places in the kingdom...
by a century. Excavation work at Ipswich has revealed that the town expanded out to become 50 hectares (123.6 acre) in size during Ælfwald's reign, when it was known as Gipeswic. It is generally considered that Gipeswic, as the trade capital of Ælfwald's kingdom, developed under the king's patronage.
A rectangular grid of streets linked the earlier quayside
Quayside
The Quayside is an area along the banks of the River Tyne in Newcastle upon Tyne and Gateshead in the North East of England, United Kingdom....
town northwards to an ancient trackway that ran eastwards. The quay at Gipeswic also continued to develop in a form that was similar to the quayside at Dorestad
Dorestad
In the Early Middle Ages, Dorestad was the largest settlement of northwestern Europe. It was a large, flourishing trading place, three kilometers long, situated where the rivers Rhine and Lek diverge southeast of Utrecht in the Netherlands near the modern town of Wijk bij Duurstede...
, south of the continental town of Utrecht
Utrecht (city)
Utrecht city and municipality is the capital and most populous city of the Dutch province of Utrecht. It is located in the eastern corner of the Randstad conurbation, and is the fourth largest city of the Netherlands with a population of 312,634 on 1 Jan 2011.Utrecht's ancient city centre features...
, which was perhaps its principal trading partner. Gipeswic's street grid, parts of which have survived, was subdivided into rectangular plots or insulae and new houses were built directly adjacent to metalled roads. The town's pottery industry, producing what has been known since the 1950s as 'Ipswich ware', gained its full importance at around this time.
The former church dedication to Saint Mildred is one that can be dated to the 740s, when Mildred's relics were translated at Minster-in-Thanet
Minster-in-Thanet
Minster-in-Thanet, also known as Minster, is a village and civil parish in the Thanet District of Kent, England. The village is situated to the west of Ramsgate and to the north east of Canterbury; it lies just south west of Kent International Airport and just north of the River Stour...
by her successor abbess Eadburh
Eadburh
Eadburh , also spelled Eadburg, was the daughter of King Offa of Mercia and Queen Cynethryth. Married to King Beorhtric of Wessex, Asser's Life of Alfred the Great tells how she accidentally killed her husband by poison. She fled to Francia, where she is said to have been offered the chance of...
.
Coinage
The coins of Ælfwald's reign are amongst the earliest that were minted in East Anglia. The coinage of silver pennies known as sceattas expanded in his time and several types are attributed to East Anglian production. Most of them fall into two main groups, known as the 'Q' and 'R' series. Neither group bears a royal name or title and the authority by which they were issued cannot not established. The 'Q' series, which has some Northumbrian affinities, is most densely distributed in western East Anglia, along the Fen edge between the WashThe Wash
The Wash is the square-mouthed bay and estuary on the northwest margin of East Anglia on the east coast of England, where Norfolk meets Lincolnshire. It is among the largest estuaries in the United Kingdom...
and Cambridge
Cambridge
The city of Cambridge is a university town and the administrative centre of the county of Cambridgeshire, England. It lies in East Anglia about north of London. Cambridge is at the heart of the high-technology centre known as Silicon Fen – a play on Silicon Valley and the fens surrounding the...
. The R series, with bust and standard, derived from earlier Kentish types, is more densely distributed in central and eastern East Anglia, including the Ipswich area. According to Michael Metcalf, the 'R' series was also East Anglian, being minted at Gipeswic.
Letter to Boniface
A letter from Ælfwald to Boniface, the leader of the English continental mission, has survived. It was written in at some time between 742 and 749 and is one of the few surviving documents from the period that relate the ecclesiatical history of East Anglia.The letter, which is a response to Boniface who had requested his support, reveals Ælfwald's sound understanding of Latin
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
. Ælfwald's letter reassures Boniface that his name was being remembered by the East Angles: it contains an offer to exchange the names of their dead, so that mutual prayers could be read for them. According to Richard Hoggett, a phrase in the letter, 'in septenis monasteriorum nostorum sinaxis', has been interpreted incorrectly by historians to imply that there were at the time seven monasteries in Ælfwald's kingdom in which prayers were being read, a theory which has proved difficult for scolars to explain. Hoggett argues that the words in the phrase refer to the number of times that the monks offered praise during the monastic day and not to the number of monasteries then in existence. He points out that this interpretation was published by Haddan and Stubbs as long ago as 1869.
Death
Ælfwald died in 749. It is not known whether he left an immediate heir. After his death, according to mediaeval sources, East Anglia was divided between three kings, under circumstances that are not clear.External link
- A translation into both modern and Old English of Felix's Vita Sancti Guthlaci ('Life of St Guthlac') by Charles Goodwin (1848), from the Internet Archive.