Xuande Emperor
Encyclopedia
The Xuande Emperor was Emperor of China
from 1425 to 1435. His era name means "Proclamation of Virtue".
and Empress Cheng Xiao Zhao. Xuande was also fond of poetry and literature. Unlike his father, the Xuande Emperor (r. 1426-35) decided to keep Beijing as the capital and rule the dynasty in the style of his grandfather, Yongle. He ordered Zheng He
to lead another maritime expedition to continue the Yongle Emperor's golden age.
Xuande's uncle Zhu Gaoxu, Prince of Han
had been a favorite of Yongle for his military successes, but he disobeyed imperial instructions and in 1417 had been exiled to the small fief of Le'an in Shandong
. When Zhu Gaoxu revolted, the new emperor Xuande took 20,000 soldiers and attacked him at Le'an. Zhu Gaoxu surrendered soon afterward. Zhu Gaoxu was reduced to a commoner and died from torture. Six hundred rebelling officials were executed, and 2,200 were banished. The Emperor did not wish to execute his uncle at the start, but later events angered the Emperor so much, that Zhu Gaoxu was executed through fire torture, and all Zhu Gaoxu's sons were executed as well. It is very likely that Zhu Gaoxu's arrogance, which is well detailed in many historic texts, offended the Emperor. A theory states that when the Emperor went to visit his uncle, Zhu Gaoxu intentionally tripped the Emperor.
Emperor Xuande wanted to withdraw his troops from Annam
, but some of his advisors disagreed. After Chinese garrisons suffered heavy casualties, the Emperor sent Liu Sheng with an army; but they were badly defeated by the Annamese
, losing 70,000 men in 1427. The Chinese forces withdrew, and Xuande eventually recognized the independence of Annam. In the north Xuande was inspecting the border with 3,000 cavalry troops in 1428 and was able to retaliate against a raid by Mongols
. The Chinese let Arughtai's Eastern Mongols battle with Toghon's Oirat tribes of the west. Beijing received horses annually from Arughtai; but he was defeated by the Oirats in 1431 and was killed in 1434 when Toghon took over eastern Mongolia. The Ming court then maintained friendly relations with the Oirats. China's diplomatic relations with Japan improved in 1432. Relations with Korea were generally good with the exception of the Koreans resenting having to send virgins occasionally to the Ming court's harem. Xuande allowed Zheng He
to make one more voyage; but such maritime expeditions by eunuch captains ended in 1434.
A privy council of eunuchs strengthened centralized power by controlling the secret police, and their influence would continue to grow. In 1428 the notorious censor Liu Guan was sentenced to penal servitude and replaced by the incorruptible Gu Zuo (d. 1446), who dismissed 43 members of the Beijing and Nanjing censorates for incompetence. Some censors were demoted, imprisoned, and banished, but none were executed. Replacements were put on probation as the censorate investigated the entire Ming administration including the military. The same year the Emperor reformed the rules governing military conscription and the treatment of deserters. Yet the hereditary military continued to be inefficient with poor morale. Huge inequalities in tax burdens had caused most farmers in some areas to leave their farms in the past forty years. In 1430 Emperor Xuande ordered tax reductions on all imperial lands and sent out "touring pacifiers" to coordinate provincial administration, exercising civilian control over the military
. They attempted to eliminate the irregularities and the corruption of the revenue collectors. Xuande often ordered retrials that allowed thousands of innocent people to be released. Xuande died of illness after ruling for ten years.
The Xuande Emperor ruled over a remarkably peaceful time with no significant external or internal problems. Later historians have considered his reign to be the Ming dynasty's golden age.
The Xuande Emperor was known as an accomplished painter, particularly skilled at painting animals. Some of his art work is preserved in the National Palace Museum
, Taipei and Arthur M. Sackler Museum
(a division of Harvard Art Museum) in Cambridge. Robert D. Mowry, the curator of Chinese art at the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, described him as “the only Ming emperor who displayed genuine artistic talent and interest."
below, the Xuande Emperor can be seen in the right half riding a black steed and wearing a plumed helmet. He is distinguished from his entourage of bodyguards as an abnormally tall figure.
Emperor of China
The Emperor of China refers to any sovereign of Imperial China reigning between the founding of Qin Dynasty of China, united by the King of Qin in 221 BCE, and the fall of Yuan Shikai's Empire of China in 1916. When referred to as the Son of Heaven , a title that predates the Qin unification, the...
from 1425 to 1435. His era name means "Proclamation of Virtue".
Biography
Born Zhu Zhanji, he was the eldest son of the Hongxi EmperorHongxi Emperor
The Hongxi Emperor was the fourth emperor of the Ming Dynasty in China. He succeeded his father, the Yongle Emperor, in 1424. His era name means "Vastly bright".-Biography:...
and Empress Cheng Xiao Zhao. Xuande was also fond of poetry and literature. Unlike his father, the Xuande Emperor (r. 1426-35) decided to keep Beijing as the capital and rule the dynasty in the style of his grandfather, Yongle. He ordered Zheng He
Zheng He
Zheng He , also known as Ma Sanbao and Hajji Mahmud Shamsuddin was a Hui-Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral, who commanded voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa, collectively referred to as the Voyages of Zheng He or Voyages of Cheng Ho from...
to lead another maritime expedition to continue the Yongle Emperor's golden age.
Xuande's uncle Zhu Gaoxu, Prince of Han
Zhu Gaoxu
Zhu Gaoxu , Prince of Gaoyang , later the Prince of Han was the second son of the Yongle Emperor and Empress Ren Xiao Wen. Gaoxu fought with his elder brother Zhu Gaozhi for the throne.-Early life:Young Gaoxu was very interested in the military and was known as a great general...
had been a favorite of Yongle for his military successes, but he disobeyed imperial instructions and in 1417 had been exiled to the small fief of Le'an in Shandong
Shandong
' is a Province located on the eastern coast of the People's Republic of China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history from the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River and served as a pivotal cultural and religious site for Taoism, Chinese...
. When Zhu Gaoxu revolted, the new emperor Xuande took 20,000 soldiers and attacked him at Le'an. Zhu Gaoxu surrendered soon afterward. Zhu Gaoxu was reduced to a commoner and died from torture. Six hundred rebelling officials were executed, and 2,200 were banished. The Emperor did not wish to execute his uncle at the start, but later events angered the Emperor so much, that Zhu Gaoxu was executed through fire torture, and all Zhu Gaoxu's sons were executed as well. It is very likely that Zhu Gaoxu's arrogance, which is well detailed in many historic texts, offended the Emperor. A theory states that when the Emperor went to visit his uncle, Zhu Gaoxu intentionally tripped the Emperor.
Emperor Xuande wanted to withdraw his troops from Annam
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
, but some of his advisors disagreed. After Chinese garrisons suffered heavy casualties, the Emperor sent Liu Sheng with an army; but they were badly defeated by the Annamese
Vietnam
Vietnam – sometimes spelled Viet Nam , officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam – is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea –...
, losing 70,000 men in 1427. The Chinese forces withdrew, and Xuande eventually recognized the independence of Annam. In the north Xuande was inspecting the border with 3,000 cavalry troops in 1428 and was able to retaliate against a raid by Mongols
Mongols
Mongols ) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia...
. The Chinese let Arughtai's Eastern Mongols battle with Toghon's Oirat tribes of the west. Beijing received horses annually from Arughtai; but he was defeated by the Oirats in 1431 and was killed in 1434 when Toghon took over eastern Mongolia. The Ming court then maintained friendly relations with the Oirats. China's diplomatic relations with Japan improved in 1432. Relations with Korea were generally good with the exception of the Koreans resenting having to send virgins occasionally to the Ming court's harem. Xuande allowed Zheng He
Zheng He
Zheng He , also known as Ma Sanbao and Hajji Mahmud Shamsuddin was a Hui-Chinese mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral, who commanded voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa, collectively referred to as the Voyages of Zheng He or Voyages of Cheng Ho from...
to make one more voyage; but such maritime expeditions by eunuch captains ended in 1434.
Civilian control of the military
Civilian control of the military is a doctrine in military and political science that places ultimate responsibility for a country's strategic decision-making in the hands of the civilian political leadership, rather than professional military officers. One author, paraphrasing Samuel P...
. They attempted to eliminate the irregularities and the corruption of the revenue collectors. Xuande often ordered retrials that allowed thousands of innocent people to be released. Xuande died of illness after ruling for ten years.
The Xuande Emperor ruled over a remarkably peaceful time with no significant external or internal problems. Later historians have considered his reign to be the Ming dynasty's golden age.
The emperor as an artist
National Palace Museum
The National Palace Museum is an art museum in Taipei. It is the national museum of the Republic of China, and has a permanent collection of over 677,687 pieces of ancient Chinese artifacts and artworks, making it one of the largest in the world. The collection encompasses over 8,000 years of...
, Taipei and Arthur M. Sackler Museum
Arthur M. Sackler Museum
The Arthur M. Sackler Museum joins the Fogg Museum and the Busch-Reisinger Museum as part of the Harvard Art Museums. Its postmodern building was designed by British architect James Stirling, generally regarded as the greatest British architect of the 20th century, and recipient of the Pritzker...
(a division of Harvard Art Museum) in Cambridge. Robert D. Mowry, the curator of Chinese art at the Arthur M. Sackler Museum, described him as “the only Ming emperor who displayed genuine artistic talent and interest."
Portrayal in art
The Xuande Emperor was portrayed in contemporary court portrait paintings, as well as in other works of art. For example, in this panoramic paintingPanoramic painting
Panoramic paintings are massive artworks that reveal a wide, all-encompassing view of a particular subject, often a landscape, military battle, or historical event. They became especially popular in the 19th Century in Europe and the United States, inciting opposition from writers of Romantic poetry...
below, the Xuande Emperor can be seen in the right half riding a black steed and wearing a plumed helmet. He is distinguished from his entourage of bodyguards as an abnormally tall figure.
Consorts
- Empress Gong Rang ZhangEmpress Gong Rang ZhangEmpress Xiao Gong Zhang was a Chinese Empress consort of the Ming Dynasty, married to the Xuande Emperor.- Sources :...
(恭讓章皇后), personal name Hu Shanxiang (胡善祥) (died 1443), married the Xuande Emperor in 1417 but was deposed in 1428, mother of Princess Shunde - Empress Xiao Gong ZhangEmpress Xiao Gong ZhangEmpress Xiao Gong Zhang was a Chinese Empress consort of the Ming Dynasty, married to the Xuande Emperor. She was the regent of China for her son in 1435–1442.- Sources :* http://www.guide2womenleaders.com/China_Heads.htm...
(孝恭章皇后), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Sun (孫) (died September/October 1462), daughter of Sun Zouzhong (孫鄒忠), initially created an Imperial Concubine (嬪) in 1417, elevated to the rank of Noble Consort (貴妃) upon the Xuande Emperor's accession in 1425, created empress in 1428 after the deposition of Empress Gong Rang Zhang, became Empress Dowager (皇太后) upon the accession of her sonZhengtong EmperorZhu Qizhen was an emperor of the Ming Dynasty. He ruled as the Zhengtong Emperor from 1435 to 1449, and as the Tianshun Emperor from 1457 to 1464....
, created Empress Dowager Shang Sheng (上聖皇太后) in December 1449, created Empress Dowager Sheng Lie Ci Shou (聖烈慈壽皇太后), mother of the Zhengtong EmperorZhengtong EmperorZhu Qizhen was an emperor of the Ming Dynasty. He ruled as the Zhengtong Emperor from 1435 to 1449, and as the Tianshun Emperor from 1457 to 1464....
and Princess Changde - Empress Dowager Xiao Yi (孝翼太后), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Wu (吳) (died December 1461), daughter of Wu An (吳安), granddaughter of Wu Yanming (吳彥名), created Consort Xian (賢妃) in 1428, initially given the posthumous namePosthumous nameA posthumous name is an honorary name given to royalty, nobles, and sometimes others, in East Asia after the person's death, and is used almost exclusively instead of one's personal name or other official titles during his life...
Consort Rong Si Xian (榮思賢妃), posthumously honored as Empress Dowager Xiao Yi by the Chongzhen EmperorChongzhen EmperorThe Chongzhen Emperor was the 16th and last emperor of the Ming Dynasty in China. He reigned from 1627 to 1644, under an era name that means "honorable and auspicious".- Early years :...
, mother of the Jingtai EmperorJingtai EmperorThe Jingtai Emperor was Emperor of China from 1449 to 1457. The second son of the Xuande Emperor, he was selected in 1449 to succeed his older brother, the Zhengtong Emperor, when the latter was captured by Mongols following the Tumu Crisis... - Imperial Concubine Guo Ai (嬪郭愛), personal name Guo Ai (郭愛), courtesy name Shanli (善理) (died 1435), was buried with the Xuande Emperor after his death
- Noble Consort Duan Jing (端靜貴妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
He (何), was buried with the Xuande Emperor after his death - Consort Chun Jing Xian (純靜賢妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Zhao (趙), was buried with the Xuande Emperor after his death - Consort Zhen Shun Hui (貞順惠妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Wu (吳), was buried with the Xuande Emperor after his death - Consort Zhuang Jing Shu (莊靜淑妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Jiao (焦), was buried with the Xuande Emperor after his death - Consort Zhuang Shun Jing (莊順敬妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Cao (曹), was buried with the Xuande Emperor after his death - Consort Zhen Hui Shun (貞惠順妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Xu (徐), was buried with the Xuande Emperor after his death - Consort Gong Ding Li (恭定麗妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Yuan (袁), was buried with the Xuande Emperor after his death - Consort Zhen Jing Shu (貞靜淑妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Zhu (諸), was buried with the Xuande Emperor after his death - Consort Gong Shun Chong (恭順充妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Li (李), was buried with the Xuande Emperor after his death - Consort Su Xi Cheng (肅僖成妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
He (何), was buried with the Xuande Emperor after his death - Consort Gong Yi Hui (恭懿惠妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Zhao (趙) - Consort Shu (淑妃), family nameChinese surnameChinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing...
Liu (劉)
Sons
| Number | Name | Formal Title | Born | Died | Mother | Spouse | Issue | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Zhu Qizhen 朱祁鎮 |
The Zhengtong Emperor Zhengtong Emperor Zhu Qizhen was an emperor of the Ming Dynasty. He ruled as the Zhengtong Emperor from 1435 to 1449, and as the Tianshun Emperor from 1457 to 1464.... (7 February 1435 - 1 September 1449) The Tianshun Emperor Zhengtong Emperor Zhu Qizhen was an emperor of the Ming Dynasty. He ruled as the Zhengtong Emperor from 1435 to 1449, and as the Tianshun Emperor from 1457 to 1464.... (11 February 1457 - 23 February 1464) |
29 November 1427 | 23 February 1464 | Empress Xiao Gong Zhang | Empress Xiao Zhuang Rui Empress Xiao Zhuang Rui Empress Xiao Zhuang Rui was a Chinese Empress consort of the Ming Dynasty, married to the Zhengtong Emperor.- Sources :... Empress Xiao Su 19 concubines |
Princess Chongqing Zhu Jianshen, Chenghua Emperor Chenghua Emperor The Chenghua Emperor was Emperor of the Ming dynasty in China, between 1464 and 1487. His era name means "Accomplished change".-Childhood:Born Zhu Jianshen, he was the Zhengtong Emperor's son. He was only 2 years old when his father, the Zhengtong emperor, was captured by the Oirat Mongols and... Zhu Jianlin, Prince Zhuang of De Zhu Jianshi Zhu Jianchun, Prince Dao of Xu Zhu Jianshu, Prince Huai of Xiu Zhu Jianze, Prince Jian of Chong Zhu Jianjun, Prince Jian of Ji Zhu Jianzhi, Prince Mu of Xin Zhu Jianpei, Prince Zhuang of Hui Princess Jiashan Princess Chun'an Princess Chongde Princess Guangde Princess Yixing Princess Longqing Princess Jiaxiang two unnamed daughters |
|
| 2 | Zhu Qiyu 朱祁鈺 |
The Jingtai Emperor Jingtai Emperor The Jingtai Emperor was Emperor of China from 1449 to 1457. The second son of the Xuande Emperor, he was selected in 1449 to succeed his older brother, the Zhengtong Emperor, when the latter was captured by Mongols following the Tumu Crisis... |
21 September 1428 | 14 March 1457 Xiyuan |
Empress Dowager Xiao Yi | Empress Xiao Yuan Jing Empress Xiao Yuan Jing Empress Xiao Yuan Jing was a Chinese Empress consort of the Ming Dynasty, married to the Jingtai Emperor.- Sources :... Empress Su Xiao Empress Su Xiao Empress Su Xiao was a Chinese Empress consort of the Ming Dynasty, married to the Jingtai Emperor.- Sources :... 2 concubines |
Zhu Jianji, Crown Prince Huaixian Princess Gu'an unnamed daughter |
Daughters
| Number | Title | Name | Born | Died | Date Married | Spouse | Mother | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Princess Shunde 順德公主 |
Family name Chinese surname Chinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing... : Zhu (朱) (personal name unknown) |
1420 | 1443 | 1437 | Shi Jing 石璟 |
Empress Gong Rang Zhang | |
| 2 | Princess Yongqing 永清公主 |
Family name Chinese surname Chinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing... : Zhu (朱) (personal name unknown) |
? | 1433 | Died before getting married | |||
| 3 | Princess Changde 常德公主 |
Family name Chinese surname Chinese family names have been historically used by Han Chinese and Sinicized Chinese ethnic groups in mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and among overseas Chinese communities. In ancient times two types of surnames, family names and clan names , existed.The colloquial expressions laobaixing... : Zhu (朱) (personal name unknown) |
1424 | 1470 | 1440 | Xue Huan 薛桓 |
Empress Xiao Gong Zhang |
Further reading
- "Early Ming China" by Edward Dreyer (1982).
- "Chinese Government in Ming Times" by Charles Hucker (1969).