Wilderness therapy
Encyclopedia
Wilderness therapy is a subset of adventure-based therapy
. It is the use of wilderness expeditions for the purpose of therapeutic intervention. There are a range of different types of wilderness therapy programs, with a range of models and approaches. Some grow out of a survival approach and some out of an Outward Bound
approach. Their aim is guiding participants toward self-reliance and self-respect. The pioneers in the field of wilderness therapy were Larry D. Olsen and Ezekiel C. Sanchez at Brigham Young University
; Nelson Chase, Steven Bacon, and others at the Colorado Outward Bound School; Rocky Kimball at Santa Fe Mountain Center and many others.
. Although the therapy is often used for behavior modification
by the families of young people, the aims and methods of wilderness therapy do not center on behavior modification. Many wilderness therapy programs avoid what they view as manipulations, contrived activities, psychological games, and contrived consequences. Most programs employ no force, confrontation, point or level systems, or other overt behavioral modification techniques or models, but stress assertiveness, open communication between staff and students, and are very group-oriented. There is no one standardized model for the therapy, since many models of wilderness therapy are reflective of different programs, although most usually contain the following principles: a series of tasks that are increasingly difficult in order to challenge the patients; teamwork activities for working together; the presence of a psychiatrist or therapist as a group leader; and the use of a therapeutic process such as a reflection journal or self evaluation.
Michael G. Conner of the Mentor Research Institute states that "wilderness therapy programs trace their origins to outdoor survival programs that placed children in a challenging environment where determination, communication and team efforts were outcomes". Alternately some programs are derived from a more ecopsychological perspective, according to the Director of the Wilderness Therapy Program at Naropa University
, "through contemplative practice and the experiential outdoor classroom, students gain further self-awareness and the ability to respond to whatever arises in the moment." The founders of ANASAZI Foundation concluded that "we learned that whenever we adopted what we have come to call 'contrived' experiences, the overall impact often diminished for the participants."
Some programs which advertise as "wilderness therapy" are actually boot camps in a wilderness environment. There have been incidents of alleged abuse. These can sometimes be distinguished from other wilderness therapy by such programs promising behavior modification
for troubled teens, but it is hard to tell just from the ads. One of the major differences between boot camps and wilderness therapy is the underlying philosophical assumptions (wilderness therapy being driven by the philosophy of experiential education
and theories of psychology and boot camps being informed by a military model). Additionally, most wilderness therapy programs have highly trained clinical staff either on the expedition or in active and ongoing consultation with the team. Boot camps may have no clinically trained staff working in the programs. Staff are often from a correctional or military background.
As in any type of treatment program, abusive situations have been reported and accidental deaths have taken place in some of these programs, although compared with similar outdoor adventure activities deaths are extremely rare. Among the most controversial programs have been those run by Steve Cartisano. or former Cartisano associates.
There also exist "wilderness therapy" boot camps located outside the U.S. to avoid U.S. regulations, many of them unlicensed fly by night outfits. Such unlicensed outfits also exist in some U.S. states where the wilderness therapy industry is poorly regulated.
There is also controversy over whether parents should be allowed make their child attend a wilderness therapy program by force, as is often the case. Apart from the thousands spent on the actual program (around $500/day), some parents pay a Teen escort company
thousands to ensure that their child gets to the program by any means necessary.
October 2007 the United States Government Accountability Office had a hearing. In relationship with the hearing, they have issued a report about the wilderness therapy industry.
After a wilderness therapy program, students may return home or may be recommended for a therapeutic boarding school
, Young Adult Program or an intensive residential treatment center
.
Adventure therapy
Adventure Therapy as a distinct and separate form of psychotherapy has only been prominent for less than 40 years. Influences from a variety of learning and psychological theories have contributed to the complex theoretical combination within adventure therapy . The underlying philosophy largely...
. It is the use of wilderness expeditions for the purpose of therapeutic intervention. There are a range of different types of wilderness therapy programs, with a range of models and approaches. Some grow out of a survival approach and some out of an Outward Bound
Outward Bound
Outward Bound is an international, non-profit, independent, outdoor educationorganization with approximately 40 schools around the world and 200,000 participants per year...
approach. Their aim is guiding participants toward self-reliance and self-respect. The pioneers in the field of wilderness therapy were Larry D. Olsen and Ezekiel C. Sanchez at Brigham Young University
Brigham Young University
Brigham Young University is a private university located in Provo, Utah. It is owned and operated by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , and is the United States' largest religious university and third-largest private university.Approximately 98% of the university's 34,000 students...
; Nelson Chase, Steven Bacon, and others at the Colorado Outward Bound School; Rocky Kimball at Santa Fe Mountain Center and many others.
Overview
The New York Asylum and the San Francisco Agnew Asylum played an early role in the development of wilderness therapy, drawing upon the philosophies of Kurt HahnKurt Hahn
Kurt Martin Hahn was a German educator whose philosophies are considered internationally influential.-Biography:...
. Although the therapy is often used for behavior modification
Behavior modification
Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to increase or decrease the frequency of behaviors, such as altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive behavior and/or the reduction of...
by the families of young people, the aims and methods of wilderness therapy do not center on behavior modification. Many wilderness therapy programs avoid what they view as manipulations, contrived activities, psychological games, and contrived consequences. Most programs employ no force, confrontation, point or level systems, or other overt behavioral modification techniques or models, but stress assertiveness, open communication between staff and students, and are very group-oriented. There is no one standardized model for the therapy, since many models of wilderness therapy are reflective of different programs, although most usually contain the following principles: a series of tasks that are increasingly difficult in order to challenge the patients; teamwork activities for working together; the presence of a psychiatrist or therapist as a group leader; and the use of a therapeutic process such as a reflection journal or self evaluation.
Michael G. Conner of the Mentor Research Institute states that "wilderness therapy programs trace their origins to outdoor survival programs that placed children in a challenging environment where determination, communication and team efforts were outcomes". Alternately some programs are derived from a more ecopsychological perspective, according to the Director of the Wilderness Therapy Program at Naropa University
Naropa University
Naropa University is a private American liberal arts university in Boulder, Colorado. Founded in 1974 by Tibetan Buddhist teacher and Oxford University scholar Chögyam Trungpa, it is named for the eleventh-century Indian Buddhist sage Naropa, an abbot of Nalanda.Naropa describes itself as...
, "through contemplative practice and the experiential outdoor classroom, students gain further self-awareness and the ability to respond to whatever arises in the moment." The founders of ANASAZI Foundation concluded that "we learned that whenever we adopted what we have come to call 'contrived' experiences, the overall impact often diminished for the participants."
Controversy
Given the proliferation of such programs, there is a concern about how these programs are run.Some programs which advertise as "wilderness therapy" are actually boot camps in a wilderness environment. There have been incidents of alleged abuse. These can sometimes be distinguished from other wilderness therapy by such programs promising behavior modification
Behavior modification
Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to increase or decrease the frequency of behaviors, such as altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive behavior and/or the reduction of...
for troubled teens, but it is hard to tell just from the ads. One of the major differences between boot camps and wilderness therapy is the underlying philosophical assumptions (wilderness therapy being driven by the philosophy of experiential education
Experiential education
Experiential education is a philosophy of education that describes the process that occurs between a teacher and student that infuses direct experience with the learning environment and content. The term is mistakenly used interchangeably with experiential learning...
and theories of psychology and boot camps being informed by a military model). Additionally, most wilderness therapy programs have highly trained clinical staff either on the expedition or in active and ongoing consultation with the team. Boot camps may have no clinically trained staff working in the programs. Staff are often from a correctional or military background.
As in any type of treatment program, abusive situations have been reported and accidental deaths have taken place in some of these programs, although compared with similar outdoor adventure activities deaths are extremely rare. Among the most controversial programs have been those run by Steve Cartisano. or former Cartisano associates.
There also exist "wilderness therapy" boot camps located outside the U.S. to avoid U.S. regulations, many of them unlicensed fly by night outfits. Such unlicensed outfits also exist in some U.S. states where the wilderness therapy industry is poorly regulated.
There is also controversy over whether parents should be allowed make their child attend a wilderness therapy program by force, as is often the case. Apart from the thousands spent on the actual program (around $500/day), some parents pay a Teen escort company
Teen escort company
Teen escort company, also called a youth transport firm, is a term used in the United States and Denmark to describe a business that specializes in transporting teenagers from their homes to various facilities.- United States :...
thousands to ensure that their child gets to the program by any means necessary.
October 2007 the United States Government Accountability Office had a hearing. In relationship with the hearing, they have issued a report about the wilderness therapy industry.
After the Program
Many teens in wilderness programs report the experience as being positive, beneficial, and enjoyable. They learn independence, patience, assertiveness, self-reliance, and maturity; although it is unclear how long these changes last. Outcome studies have been completed that show continued improvement in behavior one-year after attending wilderness therapy and new outcome studies are currently underway.After a wilderness therapy program, students may return home or may be recommended for a therapeutic boarding school
Therapeutic boarding school
A therapeutic boarding school , alternatively known as an emotional growth boarding school, is a boarding school based on the therapeutic community model that offers an educational program together with specialized structure and supervision for students with emotional and behavioral problems,...
, Young Adult Program or an intensive residential treatment center
Residential treatment center
A residential treatment center , sometimes called a rehab, is a live-in health care facility providing therapy for substance abuse, mental illness, or other behavioral problems...
.