Water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa
Encyclopedia
Although access to water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa has been steadily improving over the past two decades, the region still lags behind all other developing regions. Access to improved water supply
has increased from 49% in 1990 to 60% in 2008, while access to improved sanitation
has only risen from 28% to 31%. Sub-Saharan Africa
is unlikely to meet the Millennium Development Goals of halving the share of the population without access to safe drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015. There are, however, large disparities among Sub-Saharan countries, and between the urban and rural areas.
Usually, water is provided by utilities in urban areas and municipalities or community groups in rural areas. Sewerage is not common and wastewater treatment even less. Sanitation is often in the form of individual or communal latrines. 70% of investments in water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa are financed internally and only 30% is financed externally (2001-2005 average). Most of the internal financing is household self-finance ($2.1bn), which is primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) is almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). The contribution of private commercial financing has been negligible at $10 million only.
In Sub-Saharan Africa access to water supply and sanitation has improved, but the region lags behind all other developing regions: access to safe drinking water has increased from 49% in 1990 to 60% in 2008, while in the same time span the access to improved sanitation has only risen from 28% to 31%. Sub-Saharan Africa is unlikely to meet the Millennium Development Goals of halving the share of the population without access to safe drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015. These trends in water supply and sanitation are directly reflected in health: the under-five child mortality is decreasing worldwide, but Sub-Saharan Africa
shows the slowest pace of progress.
to 91% in South Africa
, while the access to improved sanitation fluctuates from 11% in Burkina Faso
to 77% in South Africa
.
, for instance, takes into account aspects such as waiting time and water quality. In fact, almost half of the Sub-Saharan households that according to WHO/UNICEF 'have access to improved water supply', spend more than half an hour a day collecting the water. Although this loss of time is mentioned in the WHO/UNICEF report, it does not affect their 'improved' vs. 'non-improved' distinction.
their political powers from the centre towards local authorities: in Mali it started in 1993, in Ethiopia
in 1995, in Rwanda
in 2002, in Burkina Faso
in 2004, ... Along with the decentralisation process, a reform of the water supply and sanitation sector has been put through. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation that came out of it differ throughout the continent. Two general distinctions can be made.
A first distinction should be made between water supply and sanitation responsibilities in (i) urban areas and (ii) rural areas. Most governments have created corporatised utilities for water supply and sanitation in the urban areas. In rural areas the responsibilities usually rest in the hands of the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies. The task of the central government is generally limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation.
A second distinction, with respect to the urban areas, exists between those countries (mostly francophone) that have retained one national utility active in all urban areas of the country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) that have further decentralised the utilities to local jurisdictions
In the last two decades, the management of urban water supply and sanitation has been increasingly put in hands of newly created utilities. In some cases these water supply and sanitation utilities also supply electricity. The majority of these utilities are corporatized, meaning that they emulate a private company in terms of productivity and financial independence. Nevertheless, they widely differ in legal status and ownership structure.
There were hopes that, by creating independent utilities, their business could become commercially sustainable and attract private capital. Almost half of the Sub-Saharan countries have experimented with some form of private sector participation in the utility sector since the early 1990s, which was largely supported by the World Bank. The experience with these private sector contracts has been mixed. While they did not succeed in attracting much private capital, some of them improved performance. However, almost one third have been ended before their intended termination, such as in Dar es-Salaam in Tanzania
. Others were not renewed. Today nearly half utilities are public enterprises and majority-owned by the central government. Senegal
is an example where private involvement was successful: the affermage (leasing) of the network to a private operator has considerably increased efficiency and contributed to increase access. Besides Senegal
, private operators still have a role in South Africa (four utilities), Cameroon, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ghana
, Mozambique
, Niger and Uganda
(in small towns). In Uganda and Burkina Faso
public national utilities were strengthened through short-term public-private partnerships in the form of performance-based service contracts.
The utilities never reach all households in their territory. The share of unconnected urban households fluctuates from over 80% in poor countries like Uganda
, Mozambique
, Rwanda
, Nigeria, and Madagascar, to 21% in Namibia
and 12% in South Africa
.
Some African utilities are in charge of water supply only, while others are in charge of sanitation as well. Some national water utilities, especially in Francophone Africa, also provide electricity. This is the case in Gabon, Mauritania and Rwanda, among others.
Since fast demographic growth reveals itself in expanding peri-urban areas and slum areas - rarely served by water networks or sewers – the share of the urban households connected to piped water has been steadily decreasing from 50% in 1990 to 39% in 2005. The unconnected households need to rely on alternatives –formal or informal– such as: shared standpipes or boreholes, water tankers and household resellers. Usually, standpipes are the main source of water for unconnected urban households.
(supported by donors) from which the municipalities can draw money to finance rural water supply and sanitation infrastructure. Although the municipalities usually own the infrastructure, they rarely provide the service. This it is rather delegated to community-led organisations or local private companies. Studies by the World Bank and others suggest the need for more attention to private sector operation of all types of rural water supplies.
In Kenya
, Tanzania
and South Africa
, utilities provide services to rural dwellers as well, although this does not preclude the coexistence of different arrangements for the rural space in those countries. In Rwanda
local private operators are common in rural areas.
, Senegal
and South Africa
, but are highly intermittent in Ethiopia
and Zambia
. In rural areas, continuity is expressed by the ratio of water points out of order, or by the average time per year or per month that a water point is unusable. In low income Sub-Saharan countries, indicatively, over one third of the rural water supply infrastructure is in disuse.
A second indicator of quality is the compliance with microbiological water norms. WHO/UNESCO has recently developed a Rapid Assessment of Drinking-Water Quality (RADWQ) survey method. On average, in developing countries, compliance with the who norms is close to 90% for piped water, and between 40% and 70% for other improved sources. No national or regional data have been published yet.
There is an overall underpricing of formal water and sanitation services in Sub-Saharan Africa. A first consequence is an insufficient cost recovery, leading to dependency on foreign aid and governmental support, and to insufficient investments. Second, underpricing is socially unfair. Since the poorest social groups are less connected to water networks and sewerage, they need to turn to alternatives, and they pay in some cases a multiple of the formal tariff. Hence, the poorest are hit twice: they have less access to improved water supply and sanitation, and they need to pay more.
South Africa
stands out for having introduced free basic utility services for all, including 6m3 of water per month for free.
Tariffs of about $0.40 per m3 are considered sufficient to cover operating costs in most developing-country contexts, while $1.00 would cover both operation, maintenance and infrastructure. Assuming that a tariff is affordable as long as the bill does not exceed 5% of the household’s budget, the World Bank calculates that even in the low-income Sub-Saharan countries up to 40% of the households should be able to pay the full-cost tariff of $1 per m3
, where the four utilities need 2.1–4.0 employees per 1000 connections. Rwanda
peaks with 38.6 employees per 1000 connections.
Another indicator is the share of non-revenue water
(water that is lost or not metered). In an efficiently managed system, this amount is below 25%. In 2005 it was estimated to be 20% in Senegal
, 18% in Burkina Faso
, 16% for the Water Utility Corporation in Botswana, 14% in Windhoek
in Namibia and 12% in Drakenstein
, South Africa. These utilities have achieved levels of non-revenue water similar to levels in OECD countries. However, in other African countries the level of non-revenue water is extremely high: For example, it exceeds 45% in Zambia
, is more than 60% in Maputo (Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique|Mozambique), 75% in Lindi (Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania|Tanzania) and 80% in Kaduna
(Nigeria). Few data are available for efficiency in the rural space.
. This includes $4.7 billion per year for investments (2001-2005 average). According to the World Bank, total expenditures are less than half of what would be required to achieve the Millennium Development Goals
in Sub-Saharan Africa
; that would need more than $ 16.5 billion per year or 2.6% of the regional GDP
. The African Development Bank estimates that $12 billion is required annually to cover Africa’s needs in improved water supply and sanitation.
, which is 4% of all development aid disbursed to Sub-Saharan Africa. This foreign aid covered 21% of all expenditures in water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa, and was principally directed to investments in infrastructure. Operation and maintenance is financed by the national governments and consumer revenues. The largest donors to water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa are the World Bank
, the EU institutions, the African Development Fund, and bilateral assistance from Germany and the Netherlands
. The United States
, although they are the largest donor in Sub-Saharan Africa
in absolute numbers, play a marginal role in the water supply and sanitation sector.
Especially in the poorer countries the presence of many different donors and Western NGO
s puts a strain on the coherence of national strategies, such as in Burkina Faso
and Ethiopia
. Foreign aid comes in at all levels: the central government, the national social funds, the utilities, the local authorities, local NGO
s,... Although most foreign actors try to inscribe their aid in the existing national structures, their implementation approaches and technical solutions often differ.
Improved water source
According to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation by the World Health Organization and UNICEF the following are considered as "improved" water sources:* household connections* public standpipes* boreholes* protected dug wells...
has increased from 49% in 1990 to 60% in 2008, while access to improved sanitation
Improved sanitation
According to the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation by the World Health Organization and UNICEF the following are considered as "improved" sanitation:* connection to a public sewer* connection to a septic system* pour-flush latrine...
has only risen from 28% to 31%. Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa as a geographical term refers to the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara. A political definition of Sub-Saharan Africa, instead, covers all African countries which are fully or partially located south of the Sahara...
is unlikely to meet the Millennium Development Goals of halving the share of the population without access to safe drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015. There are, however, large disparities among Sub-Saharan countries, and between the urban and rural areas.
Usually, water is provided by utilities in urban areas and municipalities or community groups in rural areas. Sewerage is not common and wastewater treatment even less. Sanitation is often in the form of individual or communal latrines. 70% of investments in water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa are financed internally and only 30% is financed externally (2001-2005 average). Most of the internal financing is household self-finance ($2.1bn), which is primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) is almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). The contribution of private commercial financing has been negligible at $10 million only.
General trends
]In Sub-Saharan Africa access to water supply and sanitation has improved, but the region lags behind all other developing regions: access to safe drinking water has increased from 49% in 1990 to 60% in 2008, while in the same time span the access to improved sanitation has only risen from 28% to 31%. Sub-Saharan Africa is unlikely to meet the Millennium Development Goals of halving the share of the population without access to safe drinking water and sanitation between 1990 and 2015. These trends in water supply and sanitation are directly reflected in health: the under-five child mortality is decreasing worldwide, but Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa as a geographical term refers to the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara. A political definition of Sub-Saharan Africa, instead, covers all African countries which are fully or partially located south of the Sahara...
shows the slowest pace of progress.
National differences
There are large disparities amongst countries in the Sub-Saharan region. Access to safe drinking water varies from 38% in EthiopiaWater supply and sanitation in Ethiopia
Access to water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia is amongst the lowest in Sub-Saharan Africa and the entire world. While access has increased substantially with funding from external aid, much still remains to be done to achieve the Millennium Development Goal of halving the share of people...
to 91% in South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa is characterized by both achievements and challenges. After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government inherited huge services backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation. About 15 million people were without safe...
, while the access to improved sanitation fluctuates from 11% in Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso are characterized by high access to water supply in urban areas, while access to improved water sources in rural areas - where three quarters of the population live - remains relatively low. An estimated one third of water facilities in rural areas are...
to 77% in South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa is characterized by both achievements and challenges. After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government inherited huge services backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation. About 15 million people were without safe...
.
The urban-rural disparities
In the entire Sub-Saharan region, water supply and sanitation coverage in urban areas is almost double the coverage in rural areas, both for water (83% in urban areas, 47% in rural areas) as for sanitation (44% vs. 24%). Yet, the rural areas improve at fast pace, whereas in urban areas the extension of water supply and sanitation infrastructure can barely keep up with the fast urban demographic growth.Different interpretations of access
Remark that the concepts 'access' and 'improved' are not unequivocal. The definitions used by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation do not necessarily coincide with those of other surveys or national policies. The government of Burkina FasoWater supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso are characterized by high access to water supply in urban areas, while access to improved water sources in rural areas - where three quarters of the population live - remains relatively low. An estimated one third of water facilities in rural areas are...
, for instance, takes into account aspects such as waiting time and water quality. In fact, almost half of the Sub-Saharan households that according to WHO/UNICEF 'have access to improved water supply', spend more than half an hour a day collecting the water. Although this loss of time is mentioned in the WHO/UNICEF report, it does not affect their 'improved' vs. 'non-improved' distinction.
National stakeholders in water supply and sanitation
Since the 1990s almost all African countries have been decentralisingDécentralisation
Décentralisation is a french word for both a policy concept in French politics from 1968-1990, and a term employed to describe the results of observations of the evolution of spatial economic and institutional organization of France....
their political powers from the centre towards local authorities: in Mali it started in 1993, in Ethiopia
Water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia
Access to water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia is amongst the lowest in Sub-Saharan Africa and the entire world. While access has increased substantially with funding from external aid, much still remains to be done to achieve the Millennium Development Goal of halving the share of people...
in 1995, in Rwanda
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda is characterized by a rapid increase in access over the past years in rural areas, aided by a clear government policy and significant donor support...
in 2002, in Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso are characterized by high access to water supply in urban areas, while access to improved water sources in rural areas - where three quarters of the population live - remains relatively low. An estimated one third of water facilities in rural areas are...
in 2004, ... Along with the decentralisation process, a reform of the water supply and sanitation sector has been put through. The institutional structures for water supply and sanitation that came out of it differ throughout the continent. Two general distinctions can be made.
A first distinction should be made between water supply and sanitation responsibilities in (i) urban areas and (ii) rural areas. Most governments have created corporatised utilities for water supply and sanitation in the urban areas. In rural areas the responsibilities usually rest in the hands of the municipality, community-based groups, or local private companies. The task of the central government is generally limited to setting the national goals and regulations for water supply and sanitation.
A second distinction, with respect to the urban areas, exists between those countries (mostly francophone) that have retained one national utility active in all urban areas of the country, and other countries (mostly anglophone) that have further decentralised the utilities to local jurisdictions
The urban areas
]In the last two decades, the management of urban water supply and sanitation has been increasingly put in hands of newly created utilities. In some cases these water supply and sanitation utilities also supply electricity. The majority of these utilities are corporatized, meaning that they emulate a private company in terms of productivity and financial independence. Nevertheless, they widely differ in legal status and ownership structure.
There were hopes that, by creating independent utilities, their business could become commercially sustainable and attract private capital. Almost half of the Sub-Saharan countries have experimented with some form of private sector participation in the utility sector since the early 1990s, which was largely supported by the World Bank. The experience with these private sector contracts has been mixed. While they did not succeed in attracting much private capital, some of them improved performance. However, almost one third have been ended before their intended termination, such as in Dar es-Salaam in Tanzania
Water privatization in Tanzania
Water privatization in Dar es Salaam began with the award of a 10-year lease contract signed in 2003 for Dar es Salaam, the largest city and former capital of Tanzania. It was signed between the government of Tanzania and City Water, a consortium consisting of the British firm Biwater, Gauff...
. Others were not renewed. Today nearly half utilities are public enterprises and majority-owned by the central government. Senegal
Water supply and sanitation in Senegal
Water supply and sanitation in Senegal is characterized by a relatively high level of access compared to the average of Sub-Saharan Africa. One of the interesting features is a public-private partnership that has been operating in Senegal since 1996, with Senegalaise des Eaux , a subsidiary of...
is an example where private involvement was successful: the affermage (leasing) of the network to a private operator has considerably increased efficiency and contributed to increase access. Besides Senegal
Water supply and sanitation in Senegal
Water supply and sanitation in Senegal is characterized by a relatively high level of access compared to the average of Sub-Saharan Africa. One of the interesting features is a public-private partnership that has been operating in Senegal since 1996, with Senegalaise des Eaux , a subsidiary of...
, private operators still have a role in South Africa (four utilities), Cameroon, Cape Verde, Ivory Coast, Gabon, Ghana
Water supply and sanitation in Ghana
The water supply and sanitation sector in Ghana faces severe problems, partly due to a neglect of the sector until the 1990s. Tariffs were kept at a low level which was far from reflecting the real cost of the service. Economic efficiency still remains below the regional average, resulting in a...
, Mozambique
Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique
Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique is characterized by low levels of access to an improved water source , low levels of access to adequate sanitation and mostly poor service quality...
, Niger and Uganda
Water supply and sanitation in Uganda
The Ugandan water supply and sanitation sector has made spectacular progress in urban areas since the mid-1990s, with substantial increases in coverage as well as in operational and commercial performance...
(in small towns). In Uganda and Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso are characterized by high access to water supply in urban areas, while access to improved water sources in rural areas - where three quarters of the population live - remains relatively low. An estimated one third of water facilities in rural areas are...
public national utilities were strengthened through short-term public-private partnerships in the form of performance-based service contracts.
The utilities never reach all households in their territory. The share of unconnected urban households fluctuates from over 80% in poor countries like Uganda
Water supply and sanitation in Uganda
The Ugandan water supply and sanitation sector has made spectacular progress in urban areas since the mid-1990s, with substantial increases in coverage as well as in operational and commercial performance...
, Mozambique
Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique
Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique is characterized by low levels of access to an improved water source , low levels of access to adequate sanitation and mostly poor service quality...
, Rwanda
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda is characterized by a rapid increase in access over the past years in rural areas, aided by a clear government policy and significant donor support...
, Nigeria, and Madagascar, to 21% in Namibia
Water supply and sanitation in Namibia
-Water resources:Namibia’s climate is hot and dry with erratic rainfall. Within Africa its climate is second in aridity only to the Sahara. Namibia shares several large rivers, such as the Orange River in the South as well as the Zambezi and Okavango Rivers in the North...
and 12% in South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa is characterized by both achievements and challenges. After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government inherited huge services backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation. About 15 million people were without safe...
.
Some African utilities are in charge of water supply only, while others are in charge of sanitation as well. Some national water utilities, especially in Francophone Africa, also provide electricity. This is the case in Gabon, Mauritania and Rwanda, among others.
Since fast demographic growth reveals itself in expanding peri-urban areas and slum areas - rarely served by water networks or sewers – the share of the urban households connected to piped water has been steadily decreasing from 50% in 1990 to 39% in 2005. The unconnected households need to rely on alternatives –formal or informal– such as: shared standpipes or boreholes, water tankers and household resellers. Usually, standpipes are the main source of water for unconnected urban households.
The rural areas
The responsibility for water supply and sanitation in rural areas has in most countries been decentralised to the municipalities: they determine the water and sanitation needs and plan the infrastructure, in line with the national water laws. Various central governments have created a national social fundSocial fund
A social fund is an institution, typically in a developing country, that provides financing for small-scale public investments targeted at meeting the needs of poor and vulnerable communities...
(supported by donors) from which the municipalities can draw money to finance rural water supply and sanitation infrastructure. Although the municipalities usually own the infrastructure, they rarely provide the service. This it is rather delegated to community-led organisations or local private companies. Studies by the World Bank and others suggest the need for more attention to private sector operation of all types of rural water supplies.
In Kenya
Water supply and sanitation in Kenya
Water supply and sanitation in Kenya is characterized by low levels of access, in particular in urban slums and in rural areas, as well as poor service quality in the form of intermittent water supply. Only 9 out of 55 water service providers in Kenya provide continuous water supply...
, Tanzania
Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania
Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania is characterised by: decreasing access to improved water sources in the 2000s , steady access to some form of sanitation , intermittent water supply and generally low quality of service...
and South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa is characterized by both achievements and challenges. After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government inherited huge services backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation. About 15 million people were without safe...
, utilities provide services to rural dwellers as well, although this does not preclude the coexistence of different arrangements for the rural space in those countries. In Rwanda
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda is characterized by a rapid increase in access over the past years in rural areas, aided by a clear government policy and significant donor support...
local private operators are common in rural areas.
Quality of service
A first indicator of the quality of water supply services is the continuity of service. The urban utilities deliver continuous services in Burkina FasoWater supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso are characterized by high access to water supply in urban areas, while access to improved water sources in rural areas - where three quarters of the population live - remains relatively low. An estimated one third of water facilities in rural areas are...
, Senegal
Water supply and sanitation in Senegal
Water supply and sanitation in Senegal is characterized by a relatively high level of access compared to the average of Sub-Saharan Africa. One of the interesting features is a public-private partnership that has been operating in Senegal since 1996, with Senegalaise des Eaux , a subsidiary of...
and South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa is characterized by both achievements and challenges. After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government inherited huge services backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation. About 15 million people were without safe...
, but are highly intermittent in Ethiopia
Water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia
Access to water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia is amongst the lowest in Sub-Saharan Africa and the entire world. While access has increased substantially with funding from external aid, much still remains to be done to achieve the Millennium Development Goal of halving the share of people...
and Zambia
Water supply and sanitation in Zambia
Water supply and sanitation in Zambia is characterized by wide discrepancies in access to an improved water source between urban and rural areas. In peri-urban areas, access has been substantially expanded through the construction of water kiosks...
. In rural areas, continuity is expressed by the ratio of water points out of order, or by the average time per year or per month that a water point is unusable. In low income Sub-Saharan countries, indicatively, over one third of the rural water supply infrastructure is in disuse.
A second indicator of quality is the compliance with microbiological water norms. WHO/UNESCO has recently developed a Rapid Assessment of Drinking-Water Quality (RADWQ) survey method. On average, in developing countries, compliance with the who norms is close to 90% for piped water, and between 40% and 70% for other improved sources. No national or regional data have been published yet.
Tariffs and cost recovery
]There is an overall underpricing of formal water and sanitation services in Sub-Saharan Africa. A first consequence is an insufficient cost recovery, leading to dependency on foreign aid and governmental support, and to insufficient investments. Second, underpricing is socially unfair. Since the poorest social groups are less connected to water networks and sewerage, they need to turn to alternatives, and they pay in some cases a multiple of the formal tariff. Hence, the poorest are hit twice: they have less access to improved water supply and sanitation, and they need to pay more.
South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa is characterized by both achievements and challenges. After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government inherited huge services backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation. About 15 million people were without safe...
stands out for having introduced free basic utility services for all, including 6m3 of water per month for free.
Tariffs of about $0.40 per m3 are considered sufficient to cover operating costs in most developing-country contexts, while $1.00 would cover both operation, maintenance and infrastructure. Assuming that a tariff is affordable as long as the bill does not exceed 5% of the household’s budget, the World Bank calculates that even in the low-income Sub-Saharan countries up to 40% of the households should be able to pay the full-cost tariff of $1 per m3
Efficiency
The number of employees per 1000 connections is an indicator of the technical efficiency of utilities. In Sub-Saharan Africa the average is 6. The highest efficiency is observed in South AfricaWater supply and sanitation in South Africa
Water supply and sanitation in South Africa is characterized by both achievements and challenges. After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government inherited huge services backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation. About 15 million people were without safe...
, where the four utilities need 2.1–4.0 employees per 1000 connections. Rwanda
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda
Water supply and sanitation in Rwanda is characterized by a rapid increase in access over the past years in rural areas, aided by a clear government policy and significant donor support...
peaks with 38.6 employees per 1000 connections.
Another indicator is the share of non-revenue water
Non-revenue water
Non revenue water is water that has been produced and is “lost” before it reaches the customer. Losses can be real losses or apparent losses . High levels of NRW are detrimental to the financial viability of water utilities, as well to the quality of water itself...
(water that is lost or not metered). In an efficiently managed system, this amount is below 25%. In 2005 it was estimated to be 20% in Senegal
Water supply and sanitation in Senegal
Water supply and sanitation in Senegal is characterized by a relatively high level of access compared to the average of Sub-Saharan Africa. One of the interesting features is a public-private partnership that has been operating in Senegal since 1996, with Senegalaise des Eaux , a subsidiary of...
, 18% in Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso are characterized by high access to water supply in urban areas, while access to improved water sources in rural areas - where three quarters of the population live - remains relatively low. An estimated one third of water facilities in rural areas are...
, 16% for the Water Utility Corporation in Botswana, 14% in Windhoek
Windhoek
Windhoek is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Namibia. It is located in central Namibia in the Khomas Highland plateau area, at around above sea level. The 2001 census determined Windhoek's population was 233,529...
in Namibia and 12% in Drakenstein
Drakenstein Local Municipality
Drakenstein Municipality is a local municipality located within the Cape Winelands District Municipality, in the Western Cape province of South Africa. As of 2007, it had a population of 217,089...
, South Africa. These utilities have achieved levels of non-revenue water similar to levels in OECD countries. However, in other African countries the level of non-revenue water is extremely high: For example, it exceeds 45% in Zambia
Water supply and sanitation in Zambia
Water supply and sanitation in Zambia is characterized by wide discrepancies in access to an improved water source between urban and rural areas. In peri-urban areas, access has been substantially expanded through the construction of water kiosks...
, is more than 60% in Maputo (Water supply and sanitation in Mozambique|Mozambique), 75% in Lindi (Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania|Tanzania) and 80% in Kaduna
Kaduna
Kaduna is the state capital of Kaduna State in north-central Nigeria. The city, located on the Kaduna River, is a trade center and a major transportation hub for the surrounding agricultural areas with its rail and road junction. The population of Kaduna is at 760,084 as of the 2006 Nigerian census...
(Nigeria). Few data are available for efficiency in the rural space.
Expenditures
In Sub-Saharan Africa, current spending on water supply and sanitation (investments, operation and maintenance) totals to $7.6 billion per year, or 1.19% of the regional GDPGross domestic product
Gross domestic product refers to the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period. GDP per capita is often considered an indicator of a country's standard of living....
. This includes $4.7 billion per year for investments (2001-2005 average). According to the World Bank, total expenditures are less than half of what would be required to achieve the Millennium Development Goals
Millennium Development Goals
The Millennium Development Goals are eight international development goals that all 193 United Nations member states and at least 23 international organizations have agreed to achieve by the year 2015...
in Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa as a geographical term refers to the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara. A political definition of Sub-Saharan Africa, instead, covers all African countries which are fully or partially located south of the Sahara...
; that would need more than $ 16.5 billion per year or 2.6% of the regional GDP
Gross domestic product
Gross domestic product refers to the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period. GDP per capita is often considered an indicator of a country's standard of living....
. The African Development Bank estimates that $12 billion is required annually to cover Africa’s needs in improved water supply and sanitation.
Financing
Out of the $4.7 billion of investments in water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa, 70% is financed internally and only 30% is financed externally (2001-2005 average). Most of the internal financing is household self-finance ($2.1bn), which is primarily for on-site sanitation such as latrines. Public sector financing ($1.2bn) is almost as high as external financing (US$1.4bn). The contribution of private commercial financing has been negligible at $10 million only. The share of external financing varies greatly. Official development assistance financed 71% of investments in Benin, 68% in Tanzania, 63% in Kenya, 43% in the DR of Congo, 34% in South Africa, 13% in Nigeria and less than 1% in Cote d'Ivoire or Botswana.External cooperation
In 2008, $1.6 billion of foreign aid flowed into the water supply and sanitation sector in Sub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa as a geographical term refers to the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara. A political definition of Sub-Saharan Africa, instead, covers all African countries which are fully or partially located south of the Sahara...
, which is 4% of all development aid disbursed to Sub-Saharan Africa. This foreign aid covered 21% of all expenditures in water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa, and was principally directed to investments in infrastructure. Operation and maintenance is financed by the national governments and consumer revenues. The largest donors to water supply and sanitation in Sub-Saharan Africa are the World Bank
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...
, the EU institutions, the African Development Fund, and bilateral assistance from Germany and the Netherlands
Netherlands Development Cooperation
The Netherlands Development Cooperation is an important branch of the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It is responsible for development and funding, particularly in the developing world in poverty stricken areas of Africa, and allocates four billion euros a year on tackling it...
. The United States
United States Agency for International Development
The United States Agency for International Development is the United States federal government agency primarily responsible for administering civilian foreign aid. President John F. Kennedy created USAID in 1961 by executive order to implement development assistance programs in the areas...
, although they are the largest donor in Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa as a geographical term refers to the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara. A political definition of Sub-Saharan Africa, instead, covers all African countries which are fully or partially located south of the Sahara...
in absolute numbers, play a marginal role in the water supply and sanitation sector.
| Total aid to SSA, in M$ and % of total | Aid to SSA in WSS, in M$ and % of total | |
|---|---|---|
| World Bank (IDA) | 4 856 (12.3%) | 378 (24.1%) |
| EU institutions | 5 056 (12.8%) | 266 (16.6%) |
| African Development Fund | 1 780 (4.5%) | 193 (12.0%) |
| Germany | 2 906 (7.4%) | 171 (10.7%) |
| The Netherlands | 1 446 (3.7%) | 137 (8.5%) |
| United States | 6 875 (17.4%) | 13 (0.8%) |
| Total received by SSA | 39 451 (100%) | 1 603 (100%) |
Especially in the poorer countries the presence of many different donors and Western NGO
Non-governmental organization
A non-governmental organization is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any government. The term originated from the United Nations , and is normally used to refer to organizations that do not form part of the government and are...
s puts a strain on the coherence of national strategies, such as in Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso
Water supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso are characterized by high access to water supply in urban areas, while access to improved water sources in rural areas - where three quarters of the population live - remains relatively low. An estimated one third of water facilities in rural areas are...
and Ethiopia
Water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia
Access to water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia is amongst the lowest in Sub-Saharan Africa and the entire world. While access has increased substantially with funding from external aid, much still remains to be done to achieve the Millennium Development Goal of halving the share of people...
. Foreign aid comes in at all levels: the central government, the national social funds, the utilities, the local authorities, local NGO
Non-governmental organization
A non-governmental organization is a legally constituted organization created by natural or legal persons that operates independently from any government. The term originated from the United Nations , and is normally used to refer to organizations that do not form part of the government and are...
s,... Although most foreign actors try to inscribe their aid in the existing national structures, their implementation approaches and technical solutions often differ.
Strategies for improvement
The final report on Africa's Infrastructure, has the following recommendations for the water supply and sanitation sector:- continue the institutional reforms: more efficient internal processes, increased autonomy of the utilities, better performance monitoring
- improve the efficacy of governmental expenditure
- experiment with different models to connect the unconnected, since investments in piped networks cannot keep pace with urban growth
- devise socially fair tariffs that nonetheless cover the real cost of water supply and sanitation
- improve the understanding of groundwater extraction in urban areas, since this is the fastest growing source of improved water supply.
See also
- Water supply and sanitation in BeninWater supply and sanitation in BeninWater supply and sanitation in Benin has been subject to considerable progress since the 1990s, in particular in rural areas, where coverage is higher than in many other African countries, and almost all development partners follow a national demand-responsive strategy, which has been adopted in 1992...
- Water supply and sanitation in Burkina FasoWater supply and sanitation in Burkina FasoWater supply and sanitation in Burkina Faso are characterized by high access to water supply in urban areas, while access to improved water sources in rural areas - where three quarters of the population live - remains relatively low. An estimated one third of water facilities in rural areas are...
- Water supply and sanitation in EthiopiaWater supply and sanitation in EthiopiaAccess to water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia is amongst the lowest in Sub-Saharan Africa and the entire world. While access has increased substantially with funding from external aid, much still remains to be done to achieve the Millennium Development Goal of halving the share of people...
- Water supply and sanitation in GhanaWater supply and sanitation in GhanaThe water supply and sanitation sector in Ghana faces severe problems, partly due to a neglect of the sector until the 1990s. Tariffs were kept at a low level which was far from reflecting the real cost of the service. Economic efficiency still remains below the regional average, resulting in a...
- Water supply and sanitation in KenyaWater supply and sanitation in KenyaWater supply and sanitation in Kenya is characterized by low levels of access, in particular in urban slums and in rural areas, as well as poor service quality in the form of intermittent water supply. Only 9 out of 55 water service providers in Kenya provide continuous water supply...
- Water supply and sanitation in NamibiaWater supply and sanitation in Namibia-Water resources:Namibia’s climate is hot and dry with erratic rainfall. Within Africa its climate is second in aridity only to the Sahara. Namibia shares several large rivers, such as the Orange River in the South as well as the Zambezi and Okavango Rivers in the North...
- Water supply and sanitation in RwandaWater supply and sanitation in RwandaWater supply and sanitation in Rwanda is characterized by a rapid increase in access over the past years in rural areas, aided by a clear government policy and significant donor support...
- Water supply and sanitation in SenegalWater supply and sanitation in SenegalWater supply and sanitation in Senegal is characterized by a relatively high level of access compared to the average of Sub-Saharan Africa. One of the interesting features is a public-private partnership that has been operating in Senegal since 1996, with Senegalaise des Eaux , a subsidiary of...
- Water supply and sanitation in Sierra Leone
- Water supply and sanitation in South AfricaWater supply and sanitation in South AfricaWater supply and sanitation in South Africa is characterized by both achievements and challenges. After the end of Apartheid South Africa's newly elected government inherited huge services backlogs with respect to access to water supply and sanitation. About 15 million people were without safe...
- Water supply and sanitation in Southern Sudan
- Water supply and sanitation in TanzaniaWater supply and sanitation in TanzaniaWater supply and sanitation in Tanzania is characterised by: decreasing access to improved water sources in the 2000s , steady access to some form of sanitation , intermittent water supply and generally low quality of service...
- Water supply and sanitation in UgandaWater supply and sanitation in UgandaThe Ugandan water supply and sanitation sector has made spectacular progress in urban areas since the mid-1990s, with substantial increases in coverage as well as in operational and commercial performance...
- Water supply and sanitation in ZambiaWater supply and sanitation in ZambiaWater supply and sanitation in Zambia is characterized by wide discrepancies in access to an improved water source between urban and rural areas. In peri-urban areas, access has been substantially expanded through the construction of water kiosks...
- Water supply and sanitation in Latin AmericaWater supply and sanitation in Latin AmericaWater supply and sanitation in Latin America is characterized by insufficient access and in many cases by poor service quality, with detrimental impacts on public health. Water and sanitation services are provided by a vast array of mostly local service providers under an often fragmented policy...
- Water privatizationWater privatizationWater privatization is a short-hand for private sector participation in the provision of water services and sanitation, although sometimes it refers to privatization and sale of water resources themselves . As water services are seen as such a key public service, water privatization is often...
- Water managementWater managementWater management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and managing the optimum use of water resources. In an ideal world. water management planning has regard to all the competing demands for water and seeks to allocate water on an equitable basis to satisfy all uses and demands...
External links
- The International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities
- Africa Infrastructure Knowledge Program
- Sustaining Water for All in a Changing Climate - The World Bank, 2010, Special case study on water resources in Nigeria, pgs. 77-82.
- The World Bank on private water operations in rural communities The World Bank, November 2010, pgs. 4-6.