Toshio Kuroda
Encyclopedia
was a Japanese
academic, historian and university professor. A specialist in medieval Japanese history and in the history of Japanese thought, he greatly influenced Japanese historiography with several innovative and controversial theories. His ideas were the opposite of what mainstream academics at the time believed, and for this reason his name is often at the center of controversies. His work has been called "seminal", "epochal" and "revolutionary". Kuroda's analysis of religion and of its significance is Marxist.
as an independent religion took shape only in the modern period, having emerged in the medieval age as an offshoot of Buddhism
. He is also known for his and " theories.
Kuroda's thought and writings influenced the work of such contemporary academics as John Breen
and Mark Teeuwen
. The Fall 1996, 23/3–4 issue of Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture
's Japanese Journal of Religious Studies was entirely dedicated to him under the title "The Legacy of Kuroda Toshio".
rituals and the state ranking of shrines during the Heian period
were not the emergence of Shinto as an independent religion, but an effort to explain local beliefs in Buddhist terms. He also claims that, if it's true that the two characters for appear very early in the historical record, for example in the Nihon Shoki
, this does not mean today's Shinto already existed as a religion at the time because they were originally used as a name for Taoism
or even for religion in general. Indeed, according to Kuroda many lasting features of Shinto, for example the worship of mirrors and swords or the very structure of Ise Shrine
(Shinto's holiest and most important site) are typical of Taoism. The term Shinto in old texts therefore does not necessarily indicate something uniquely Japanese.
According to a BBC website, Kuroda's scholarly writings about Shinto
are considered important:
Such has been his influence that today Japanese specialists, when talking about events antecedent the Japanese Middle Ages, to avoid using the term Shinto have acquired a strong tendency to use instead other terms like .
). To the contrary, Kuroda emphasized the continuation of the power of the Kyoto court and of the older schools of Buddhism from the Heian period. He claimed that government wasn't a prerogative of the warrior cast, but rather a power-sharing arrangement between three blocks (the ), namely the warriors, the aristocrats, and the religious centers of power, with the Emperor
acting as an arbiter.
, Jōdo
and Nichiren schools, but older ones like the Hossō, Kegon
, Tendai
, and Shingon, which he called with the collective name Buddhism because the group included both exoteric and esoteric schools of Japanese Buddhism
. Representative of the system were powerful temples like Kōfuku-ji
, Tōdai-ji
, Enryaku-ji
, and Tō-ji
, whose function was to perform rites for the ruling elites. Because the then-dominant honji suijaku
theological theory, which claimed Japanese kami
were simply local emanations of Indian Buddhist gods, allowed the kenmitsu schools to incorporate kami cults into Buddhism, shrines dedicated to them could be included into the kenmon taisei political and economic system.
/WorldCat
encompasses roughly 30+ works in 70+ publications in 2 languages and 500+ library holdings.
Japanese people
The are an ethnic group originating in the Japanese archipelago and are the predominant ethnic group of Japan. Worldwide, approximately 130 million people are of Japanese descent; of these, approximately 127 million are residents of Japan. People of Japanese ancestry who live in other countries...
academic, historian and university professor. A specialist in medieval Japanese history and in the history of Japanese thought, he greatly influenced Japanese historiography with several innovative and controversial theories. His ideas were the opposite of what mainstream academics at the time believed, and for this reason his name is often at the center of controversies. His work has been called "seminal", "epochal" and "revolutionary". Kuroda's analysis of religion and of its significance is Marxist.
Career
Kuroda is known for having published "Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion," which argued that ShintoShinto
or Shintoism, also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous spirituality of Japan and the Japanese people. It is a set of practices, to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written...
as an independent religion took shape only in the modern period, having emerged in the medieval age as an offshoot of Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
. He is also known for his and " theories.
Kuroda's thought and writings influenced the work of such contemporary academics as John Breen
John Breen (scholar)
John Lawrence Breen is a British academic and Japanologist. He is a specialist in Japanese religious practices at the in Kyoto. He collaborates with Dutch scholar Mark Teeuwen, with whom he has published two books....
and Mark Teeuwen
Mark Teeuwen
Mark J. Teeuwen is a Dutch academic and Japanologist. He is an expert in Japanese religious practices, and he is a Professor at the University of Oslo...
. The Fall 1996, 23/3–4 issue of Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture
Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture
The ' is one of the largest, if not the largest, centers in the world devoted to scholarly research on the interface of philosophy and religions East and West...
's Japanese Journal of Religious Studies was entirely dedicated to him under the title "The Legacy of Kuroda Toshio".
Kuroda's position on Shinto
In his article "Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion," published in English in 1981, Kuroda argued that Shinto as an independent and organized religion was born only in the modern period after emerging in the Middle Ages as an offshoot of Buddhism. Kuroda's main argument is that Shinto as a distinct religion is a Meiji era invention of Japanese nationalist ideologues. He points out how the state formalization of kamiKami
is the Japanese word for the spirits, natural forces, or essence in the Shinto faith. Although the word is sometimes translated as "god" or "deity", some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term...
rituals and the state ranking of shrines during the Heian period
Heian period
The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. The period is named after the capital city of Heian-kyō, or modern Kyōto. It is the period in Japanese history when Buddhism, Taoism and other Chinese influences were at their height...
were not the emergence of Shinto as an independent religion, but an effort to explain local beliefs in Buddhist terms. He also claims that, if it's true that the two characters for appear very early in the historical record, for example in the Nihon Shoki
Nihon Shoki
The , sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second oldest book of classical Japanese history. It is more elaborate and detailed than the Kojiki, the oldest, and has proven to be an important tool for historians and archaeologists as it includes the most complete extant historical...
, this does not mean today's Shinto already existed as a religion at the time because they were originally used as a name for Taoism
Taoism
Taoism refers to a philosophical or religious tradition in which the basic concept is to establish harmony with the Tao , which is the mechanism of everything that exists...
or even for religion in general. Indeed, according to Kuroda many lasting features of Shinto, for example the worship of mirrors and swords or the very structure of Ise Shrine
Ise Shrine
is a Shinto shrine dedicated to goddess Amaterasu-ōmikami, located in the city of Ise in Mie prefecture, Japan. Officially known simply as , Ise Jingū is in fact a shrine complex composed of a large number of Shinto shrines centered on two main shrines, and ....
(Shinto's holiest and most important site) are typical of Taoism. The term Shinto in old texts therefore does not necessarily indicate something uniquely Japanese.
According to a BBC website, Kuroda's scholarly writings about Shinto
Shinto
or Shintoism, also kami-no-michi, is the indigenous spirituality of Japan and the Japanese people. It is a set of practices, to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present day Japan and its ancient past. Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written...
are considered important:
- "The scholar Kuroda Toshio has suggested that the traditional view of Shinto as the indigenous religion of Japan stretching back into pre-history is wrong. He argues that Shinto didn't emerge as a separate religion until comparatively modern times, and that this happened for political reasons. The traditional view, he says, is a modern construction of Shinto that has been projected back into history."
Such has been his influence that today Japanese specialists, when talking about events antecedent the Japanese Middle Ages, to avoid using the term Shinto have acquired a strong tendency to use instead other terms like .
Kuroda's kenmon taisei
Another major contribution was his theory. Traditional scholarship characterized medieval history as the period of emergence of military governments and new forms of Buddhism (the Kamakura Buddhist schools like Rinzai and NichirenNichiren
Nichiren was a Buddhist monk who lived during the Kamakura period in Japan. Nichiren taught devotion to the Lotus Sutra, entitled Myōhō-Renge-Kyō in Japanese, as the exclusive means to attain enlightenment and the chanting of Nam-Myōhō-Renge-Kyō as the essential practice of the teaching...
). To the contrary, Kuroda emphasized the continuation of the power of the Kyoto court and of the older schools of Buddhism from the Heian period. He claimed that government wasn't a prerogative of the warrior cast, but rather a power-sharing arrangement between three blocks (the ), namely the warriors, the aristocrats, and the religious centers of power, with the Emperor
Emperor of Japan
The Emperor of Japan is, according to the 1947 Constitution of Japan, "the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people." He is a ceremonial figurehead under a form of constitutional monarchy and is head of the Japanese Imperial Family with functions as head of state. He is also the highest...
acting as an arbiter.
Kenmitsu taisei theory
Unlike most scholars at the time, Kuroda believed that the dominant branches of Buddhism during the Japanese Middle Ages (1185 - 1603) were not those of the so-called Kamakura New Buddhism, namely the ZenZen
Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded by the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma. The word Zen is from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word Chán , which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which can be approximately translated as "meditation" or "meditative state."Zen...
, Jōdo
Jodo
, meaning "the way of the jō", or is a Japanese martial art using short staffs called jō. The art is similar to bōjutsu, and is strongly focused upon defense against the Japanese sword. The jō is a short staff, usually about 3 to 5 feet long...
and Nichiren schools, but older ones like the Hossō, Kegon
Kegon
Kegon is the name of the Japanese transmission of the Huayan school of Chinese Buddhism.Huayan studies were founded in Japan when, in 736, the scholar-priest Rōben originally a monk of the Hossō tradition invited Shinshō to give lectures on the Avatamsaka Sutra at...
, Tendai
Tendai
is a Japanese school of Mahayana Buddhism, a descendant of the Chinese Tiantai or Lotus Sutra school.Chappell frames the relevance of Tendai for a universal Buddhism:- History :...
, and Shingon, which he called with the collective name Buddhism because the group included both exoteric and esoteric schools of Japanese Buddhism
Buddhism in Japan
The history of Buddhism in Japan can be roughly divided into three periods, namely the Nara period , the Heian period and the post-Heian period . Each period saw the introduction of new doctrines and upheavals in existing schools...
. Representative of the system were powerful temples like Kōfuku-ji
Kofuku-ji
is a Buddhist temple in the city of Nara, Nara Prefecture, Japan. The temple is the national headquarters of the Hossō school and is one of the eight Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.-History:...
, Tōdai-ji
Todai-ji
, is a Buddhist temple complex located in the city of Nara, Japan. Its Great Buddha Hall , the largest wooden building in the world, houses the world's largest bronze statue of the Buddha Vairocana, known in Japanese simply as Daibutsu . The temple also serves as the Japanese headquarters of the ...
, Enryaku-ji
Enryaku-ji
thumb|300px|Konpon Chū-dō , Enryaku-ji's main hall is a Tendai monastery located on Mount Hiei in Ōtsu, overlooking Kyoto. It was founded during the early Heian period. The temple complex was established by Saichō , also known as Dengyō Daishi, who introduced the Tendai sect of Mahayana Buddhism...
, and Tō-ji
To-ji
is a Buddhist temple of the Shingon sect in Kyoto, Japan. Its name means East Temple, and it once had a partner, Sai-ji . They stood alongside the Rashomon, the gate to the Heian capital. It is formally known as which indicates that it previously functioned as a temple providing protection for the...
, whose function was to perform rites for the ruling elites. Because the then-dominant honji suijaku
Honji suijaku
The term in Japanese religious terminology refers to a theory widely accepted until the Meiji period according to which Indian Buddhist deities choose to appear in Japan as native kami in order to more easily convert and save the Japanese...
theological theory, which claimed Japanese kami
Kami
is the Japanese word for the spirits, natural forces, or essence in the Shinto faith. Although the word is sometimes translated as "god" or "deity", some Shinto scholars argue that such a translation can cause a misunderstanding of the term...
were simply local emanations of Indian Buddhist gods, allowed the kenmitsu schools to incorporate kami cults into Buddhism, shrines dedicated to them could be included into the kenmon taisei political and economic system.
Selected works
In a statistical overview derived from writings by and about Toshio Kuroda, OCLCOCLC
OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc. is "a nonprofit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world’s information and reducing information costs"...
/WorldCat
WorldCat
WorldCat is a union catalog which itemizes the collections of 72,000 libraries in 170 countries and territories which participate in the Online Computer Library Center global cooperative...
encompasses roughly 30+ works in 70+ publications in 2 languages and 500+ library holdings.
- 蒙古襲来 (1965)
- 日本中世封建制論 (1974)
- 日本中世の国家と宗教 (1975)
- 寺社勢力: もう一つの中世社会 (1980)
- 歴史学の再生 : 中世史を組み直す (1983)
- 王法と仏法: 中世史の構図 (1983)
- 国家と天皇: 天皇制イデオロギ－としての仏教 (1987)
- 中世寺院史の研究 (1988)
- 日本中世の社会と宗教 (1990)