Tibetan diaspora
Encyclopedia
The Tibetan diaspora is a term used to refer to the communities of Tibetan people
living outside Tibet
. Tibetan emigration happened in two waves: one in 1959 following the 14th Dalai Lama
's self-exile in India
, and the other in the 1980s when Tibet was opened to trade and tourism. The third wave continues from 1996 to today. Not all emigration from Tibet is permanent; today some parents in Tibet send their children to communities in the diaspora to receive a traditional Tibetan education. In the 2009 census, Tibetans in exile registered are about 128,000, with the most numerous part of the community living in India, Nepal
, and Bhutan
. However, in 2005 and 2009 an estimation at up to 150,000 was given.
(CTA) provides a Green Book
- a kind of Tibetan identity certificate - to Tibetan refugees. Based on a CTA survey from 2009, 127,935 Tibetans were registered in the diaspora: in India 94,203; in Nepal 13,514; in Bhutan 1,298; and in rest of the world 18,920. However, their number is estimated at up to 150,000, as mentioned by both Edward J. Mills et al. in 2005 and by the 14th Dalai Lama
in 2009.
The larger of the other communities are in the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, France, Taiwan and Australia.
, the 14th Dalai Lama
and some of his government fled to India. From 1959 to 1960, about 80,000 Tibetans followed the Dalai Lama to India through the Himalayas
. Continued flights, estimated in the numbers of 1,000 to 2,500 a year, increased these numbers to 100,000. The movement of refugees during this time is sometimes referred to as an "exodus", as in a United Nations General Assembly
resolution in 1961 that asserted that the presence of Tibetan refugees in neighboring countries was "evidence" of rights abuses in Tibet.
According to a US cable put out by WikiLeaks
, from 1980 to November 2009, 87,096 Tibetans arrived in India and registered at the Dharamsala
reception center, whereas 46,620 returned to Tibet after a pilgrimage in India. Most of those staying are children to attend Tibetan Children's Villages school.
claimed that 3,000–4,500 Tibetans arrive at Dharamsala
every year. Most new immigrants are children who are sent to Tibetan cultural schools, sometimes with the tacit approval of the Chinese government. Many political activists, including monks, have also crossed over through Nepal to India. Significant cultural gaps exist between recent Tibetan emigrants (gsar 'byor pa; "newcomer") and Indian-born Tibetans. The more established Tibetans in diaspora reject recent immigrant Tibetans who watch watch Chinese
, sing Chinese music
, and can speak Mandarin, who are than alienated from the exile community. Newcomers express frustration that the government-in-exile only wants to hear only "bad things" about Chinese rule in Tibet, and a lack of economic opportunity in Dharamsala.
of the 14th Dalai Lama
based in the McLeod Ganj
suburb of the city of Dharamsala
in India. One of the people to organize the functioning of Tibetan refugee camps in India and to transform the life of Tibetan refugees into the ways of a diaspora was Polish born Wanda Dynowska
(1888–1971), called Umadevi
, recalled by the 14th Dalai Lama as the "Polish Mother", along with her friend, Indian citizen of Polish origin, Maurycy Frydman
. The CTA maintains Tibet Offices in 10 countries. These act as de facto embassies of the CTA, offices of culture and information and effectively provide a kind of consular help to Tibetans. They are based in New Delhi, India; New York, USA; Geneva, Switzerland; Tokyo, Japan; London, UK; Canberra, Australia; Paris, France; Moscow, Russia; Pretoria, South Africa; and Taipei, Taiwan. The Tibetan diaspora NGOs deal with the cultural and social life of the diaspora, the preservation of cultural heritage, and the promotion of political Tibetan independence.
In 2009, The Tibetan Children's Villages established the first Tibetan higher college in exile in Bangalore
(India) which was named "The Dalai Lama Institute for Higher Education". The goals of this college is to teach Tibetan language
and Tibetan culture
, but also science, the arts, counseling
and information technology
.
According to Nawang Thogmed, a CTA official, the most oft-cited problems for newly migrating Tibetans in India are the language barrier
, their dislike for Indian food, and the warm climate
, which makes Tibetan clothing uncomfortable. Some exiles also fear that their Tibetan culture is being diluted in India. Indian television runs in Hindi and English
.
after 1959, as the country was used mainly as a transit route to India. However, in 1961, following growing tensions between China and India
, India sealed its northern border with Bhutan, prompting Bhutan to arrange an emergency meeting with the Government of India
(GOI) and the CTA to deal with the Tibetans stuck in the country. The government of Bhutan agreed to take in 4000 settlers, although ordinary Bhutanese became increasingly resentful of the Tibetan immigrants because of their refusal to assimilate
into Bhutanese culture
. In 1974, 28 Tibetans, including the representative of the Dalai Lama in Thimphu
, were arrested and accused of a conspiracy to assassinate King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
. When the CTA refused to provide evidence of their innocence, relations between Bhutan and Dharamshala soured, and in 1979, the Government of Bhutan announced that any Tibetan in the country that did not take Bhutanese citizenship would be repatriated back to China. Despite the CTA's opposition, 2300 Tibetans applied for citizenship; most of the remainder resettled in India.
, and are stereotyped as spiritual and victims. Politically, organizations such as the Tibetan Youth Association in Europe attempt to cultivate a Tibetan identity for Tibetans in Europe. However, many Tibetan youths in Europe cannot speak a Tibetan language and do not feel they belong to a wider Tibetan community; such identity crises have on occasion led to drug dependency and crime.
Tibetan people
The Tibetan people are an ethnic group that is native to Tibet, which is mostly in the People's Republic of China. They number 5.4 million and are the 10th largest ethnic group in the country. Significant Tibetan minorities also live in India, Nepal, and Bhutan...
living outside Tibet
Tibet
Tibet is a plateau region in Asia, north-east of the Himalayas. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpas, Qiang, and Lhobas, and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han and Hui people...
. Tibetan emigration happened in two waves: one in 1959 following the 14th Dalai Lama
14th Dalai Lama
The 14th Dalai Lama is the 14th and current Dalai Lama. Dalai Lamas are the most influential figures in the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, although the 14th has consolidated control over the other lineages in recent years...
's self-exile in India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, and the other in the 1980s when Tibet was opened to trade and tourism. The third wave continues from 1996 to today. Not all emigration from Tibet is permanent; today some parents in Tibet send their children to communities in the diaspora to receive a traditional Tibetan education. In the 2009 census, Tibetans in exile registered are about 128,000, with the most numerous part of the community living in India, Nepal
Nepal
Nepal , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked sovereign state located in South Asia. It is located in the Himalayas and bordered to the north by the People's Republic of China, and to the south, east, and west by the Republic of India...
, and Bhutan
Bhutan
Bhutan , officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked state in South Asia, located at the eastern end of the Himalayas and bordered to the south, east and west by the Republic of India and to the north by the People's Republic of China...
. However, in 2005 and 2009 an estimation at up to 150,000 was given.
Origins and numbers
The Central Tibetan AdministrationCentral Tibetan Administration
The Central Tibetan Administration , is an organisation based in India with the stated goals of "rehabilitating Tibetan refugees and restoring freedom and happiness in Tibet". It was established by the 14th Dalai Lama in 1959 shortly after his exile from Tibet...
(CTA) provides a Green Book
Green Book (Tibetan document)
Green Book is a document issued since 1971 by the Central Tibetan Administration to Tibetans living outside Tibet, and described by the issuing organization as "the most official document issued by the Tibetan Government in Exile." They are owned by more than 90 per cent of the Tibetan refugees...
- a kind of Tibetan identity certificate - to Tibetan refugees. Based on a CTA survey from 2009, 127,935 Tibetans were registered in the diaspora: in India 94,203; in Nepal 13,514; in Bhutan 1,298; and in rest of the world 18,920. However, their number is estimated at up to 150,000, as mentioned by both Edward J. Mills et al. in 2005 and by the 14th Dalai Lama
14th Dalai Lama
The 14th Dalai Lama is the 14th and current Dalai Lama. Dalai Lamas are the most influential figures in the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, although the 14th has consolidated control over the other lineages in recent years...
in 2009.
The larger of the other communities are in the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, France, Taiwan and Australia.
First wave
During the 1959 Tibetan uprising1959 Tibetan uprising
The 1959 Tibetan uprising, or 1959 Tibetan Rebellion began on 10 March 1959, when a revolt erupted in Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, which had been under the effective control of the Communist Party of China since the Seventeen Point Agreement in 1951...
, the 14th Dalai Lama
14th Dalai Lama
The 14th Dalai Lama is the 14th and current Dalai Lama. Dalai Lamas are the most influential figures in the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, although the 14th has consolidated control over the other lineages in recent years...
and some of his government fled to India. From 1959 to 1960, about 80,000 Tibetans followed the Dalai Lama to India through the Himalayas
Himalayas
The Himalaya Range or Himalaya Mountains Sanskrit: Devanagari: हिमालय, literally "abode of snow"), usually called the Himalayas or Himalaya for short, is a mountain range in Asia, separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau...
. Continued flights, estimated in the numbers of 1,000 to 2,500 a year, increased these numbers to 100,000. The movement of refugees during this time is sometimes referred to as an "exodus", as in a United Nations General Assembly
United Nations General Assembly
For two articles dealing with membership in the General Assembly, see:* General Assembly members* General Assembly observersThe United Nations General Assembly is one of the five principal organs of the United Nations and the only one in which all member nations have equal representation...
resolution in 1961 that asserted that the presence of Tibetan refugees in neighboring countries was "evidence" of rights abuses in Tibet.
Second wave
After the opening of Tibet in the 1980s to trade and tourism, a second Tibetan wave of exile took place due to increasing political repression. From 1986 to 1996, 25,000 Tibetans joined and increased by 18% their exiled community in India. This movement of refugees during this second wave is sometimes referred to as a "second exodus".According to a US cable put out by WikiLeaks
Wikileaks
WikiLeaks is an international self-described not-for-profit organisation that publishes submissions of private, secret, and classified media from anonymous news sources, news leaks, and whistleblowers. Its website, launched in 2006 under The Sunshine Press organisation, claimed a database of more...
, from 1980 to November 2009, 87,096 Tibetans arrived in India and registered at the Dharamsala
Dharamsala
Dharamshala or Dharamsala is a city in northern India. It was formerly known as Bhagsu; it is the winter seat of government of the state of Himachal Pradesh and the district headquarters of the Kangra district....
reception center, whereas 46,620 returned to Tibet after a pilgrimage in India. Most of those staying are children to attend Tibetan Children's Villages school.
Present emigration
A 2008 documentary directed by Richard MartiniRichard martini
Richard Martini is an award-winning American film director, producer, screenwriter and free lance journalist. He graduated Magna Cum Laude from Boston University with a degree in Humanities, attended USC Film School and is a 2008 graduate of the Master of Professional Writing Program at...
claimed that 3,000–4,500 Tibetans arrive at Dharamsala
Dharamsala
Dharamshala or Dharamsala is a city in northern India. It was formerly known as Bhagsu; it is the winter seat of government of the state of Himachal Pradesh and the district headquarters of the Kangra district....
every year. Most new immigrants are children who are sent to Tibetan cultural schools, sometimes with the tacit approval of the Chinese government. Many political activists, including monks, have also crossed over through Nepal to India. Significant cultural gaps exist between recent Tibetan emigrants (gsar 'byor pa; "newcomer") and Indian-born Tibetans. The more established Tibetans in diaspora reject recent immigrant Tibetans who watch watch Chinese
Cinema of China
The Chinese-language cinema has three distinct historical threads: Cinema of Hong Kong, Cinema of China, and Cinema of Taiwan. Since 1949 the cinema of mainland China has operated under restrictions imposed by the Communist Party of China's State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television and...
, sing Chinese music
Music of China
Chinese Music has been made since the dawn of Chinese civilization with documents and artifacts providing evidence of a well-developed musical culture as early as the Zhou Dynasty...
, and can speak Mandarin, who are than alienated from the exile community. Newcomers express frustration that the government-in-exile only wants to hear only "bad things" about Chinese rule in Tibet, and a lack of economic opportunity in Dharamsala.
Organisations
The main organisation of the Tibetan diaspora is the Central Tibetan AdministrationCentral Tibetan Administration
The Central Tibetan Administration , is an organisation based in India with the stated goals of "rehabilitating Tibetan refugees and restoring freedom and happiness in Tibet". It was established by the 14th Dalai Lama in 1959 shortly after his exile from Tibet...
of the 14th Dalai Lama
14th Dalai Lama
The 14th Dalai Lama is the 14th and current Dalai Lama. Dalai Lamas are the most influential figures in the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, although the 14th has consolidated control over the other lineages in recent years...
based in the McLeod Ganj
McLeod Ganj
McLeod Ganj, McLeodGanj, or Mcleodganj, is a suburb of Dharamshala in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, India. It has an average elevation of 2,082 metres ....
suburb of the city of Dharamsala
Dharamsala
Dharamshala or Dharamsala is a city in northern India. It was formerly known as Bhagsu; it is the winter seat of government of the state of Himachal Pradesh and the district headquarters of the Kangra district....
in India. One of the people to organize the functioning of Tibetan refugee camps in India and to transform the life of Tibetan refugees into the ways of a diaspora was Polish born Wanda Dynowska
Wanda Dynowska
Wanda Dynowska Polish writer, translator, social activist, promoter of intercultural exchanges between India and Poland, jogini, foundress of the Indian-Polish Library.-Biography:...
(1888–1971), called Umadevi
Umadevi
Umadevi is the wife of Suganthan,a successful editor in the Tamil Film Industry and the daughter of a big businessmanBorn in 1991, Umadevi became Suganthan's Soulmate during her college days at Karpagam Polytechnic College. She was really good at academics, she was the class topper from the first...
, recalled by the 14th Dalai Lama as the "Polish Mother", along with her friend, Indian citizen of Polish origin, Maurycy Frydman
Maurice Frydman
Maurice Frydman , aka Swami Bharatananda , was an engineer and humanitarian who spent the later part of his life in India...
. The CTA maintains Tibet Offices in 10 countries. These act as de facto embassies of the CTA, offices of culture and information and effectively provide a kind of consular help to Tibetans. They are based in New Delhi, India; New York, USA; Geneva, Switzerland; Tokyo, Japan; London, UK; Canberra, Australia; Paris, France; Moscow, Russia; Pretoria, South Africa; and Taipei, Taiwan. The Tibetan diaspora NGOs deal with the cultural and social life of the diaspora, the preservation of cultural heritage, and the promotion of political Tibetan independence.
Education
The Central Tibetan Schools Administration with a seat in New Delhi is an autonomous organization established in 1961 with the objective to establish, manage and assist schools in India for the education of Tibetan children living in India while preserving and promoting their culture and heritage. According to information on its own website, as of 2009 the Administration was running 71 schools in the areas of concentration of Tibetan population, with about 10,000 students on the roll from pre-primary to class XII, and with 554 teaching staff. According to the information on the website of the CTA, as of 2009.01.13. there were 28 CTSA schools whose enrollment was 9,991 students.In 2009, The Tibetan Children's Villages established the first Tibetan higher college in exile in Bangalore
Bangalore
Bengaluru , formerly called Bengaluru is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. Bangalore is nicknamed the Garden City and was once called a pensioner's paradise. Located on the Deccan Plateau in the south-eastern part of Karnataka, Bangalore is India's third most populous city and...
(India) which was named "The Dalai Lama Institute for Higher Education". The goals of this college is to teach Tibetan language
Tibetan language
The Tibetan languages are a cluster of mutually-unintelligible Tibeto-Burman languages spoken primarily by Tibetan peoples who live across a wide area of eastern Central Asia bordering the Indian subcontinent, including the Tibetan Plateau and the northern Indian subcontinent in Baltistan, Ladakh,...
and Tibetan culture
Tibetan culture
Tibetan culture developed under the influence of a number of factors. Contact with neighboring countries and cultures- including Nepal, India and China - have influenced the development of Tibetan culture, but the Himalayan region's remoteness and inaccessibility have preserved distinctive local...
, but also science, the arts, counseling
School counselor
A school counselor is a counselor and an educator who works in elementary, middle, and high schools to provide academic, career, college access, and personal/social competencies to K-12 students...
and information technology
Information technology
Information technology is the acquisition, processing, storage and dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numerical information by a microelectronics-based combination of computing and telecommunications...
.
Migration from settlements in India
Migration of young people from Tibetan settlements in India is a serious cause of concern as it threatens Tibetan identity and culture in exile with marginalization. According to Tenzin Lekshay, most exile settlements are guarded by old aged people, some established schools in the settlements are on the verge of closing for lack of pupils, and graduates are scattering to Indian cities because of the lack of employment opportunities in the community.According to Nawang Thogmed, a CTA official, the most oft-cited problems for newly migrating Tibetans in India are the language barrier
Language barrier
Language barrier is a figurative phrase used primarily to indicate the difficulties faced when people who have no language in common attempt to communicate with each other...
, their dislike for Indian food, and the warm climate
Climate of India
Analyzed according to the Köppen system, the climate of India resolves into six major climatic subtypes; their influences give rise to desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, humid tropical regions supporting rain forests in the southwest, and Indian Ocean island territories...
, which makes Tibetan clothing uncomfortable. Some exiles also fear that their Tibetan culture is being diluted in India. Indian television runs in Hindi and English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
.
In Bhutan
Few Tibetans settled in BhutanBhutan
Bhutan , officially the Kingdom of Bhutan, is a landlocked state in South Asia, located at the eastern end of the Himalayas and bordered to the south, east and west by the Republic of India and to the north by the People's Republic of China...
after 1959, as the country was used mainly as a transit route to India. However, in 1961, following growing tensions between China and India
Events leading to the Sino-Indian War
A long series of events triggered the Sino-Indian War in 1962. According to John W. Garver, Chinese perceptions about the Indian designs for Tibet, and the failure to demarcate a common border between China and India were important in China's decision to fight a war with India.-Friendly...
, India sealed its northern border with Bhutan, prompting Bhutan to arrange an emergency meeting with the Government of India
Government of India
The Government of India, officially known as the Union Government, and also known as the Central Government, was established by the Constitution of India, and is the governing authority of the union of 28 states and seven union territories, collectively called the Republic of India...
(GOI) and the CTA to deal with the Tibetans stuck in the country. The government of Bhutan agreed to take in 4000 settlers, although ordinary Bhutanese became increasingly resentful of the Tibetan immigrants because of their refusal to assimilate
Cultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...
into Bhutanese culture
Culture of Bhutan
Cradled in the folds of the Himalayas, Bhutan has relied on its geographic isolation to protect itself from outside cultural influences. A sparsely populated country bordered by India to the south and China to the north, Bhutan has long maintained a policy of strict isolationism, both culturally...
. In 1974, 28 Tibetans, including the representative of the Dalai Lama in Thimphu
Thimphu
Thimphu also spelt Thimpu, is the capital and largest city of Bhutan. It is situated in the western central part of Bhutan and the surrounding valley is one of Bhutan's dzongkhags, the Thimphu District. The city became the capital of Bhutan in 1961...
, were arrested and accused of a conspiracy to assassinate King Jigme Singye Wangchuck
Jigme Singye Wangchuck
Jigme Singye Wangchuck is the former King of Bhutan. He was the fourth Dragon King of Bhutan from 1972 until his abdication in favour of his eldest son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, in 2006...
. When the CTA refused to provide evidence of their innocence, relations between Bhutan and Dharamshala soured, and in 1979, the Government of Bhutan announced that any Tibetan in the country that did not take Bhutanese citizenship would be repatriated back to China. Despite the CTA's opposition, 2300 Tibetans applied for citizenship; most of the remainder resettled in India.
In Europe and North America
Tibetans in Europe and North America are not as politically active or unintegrated into the host society as Tibetans in India, because they do not live in concentrated communities, and are educated in local schools instead of living under a special Tibetan jurisdiction as Tibetan Indians do. In Europe, Tibetans have been received more positively than other immigrants to EuropeImmigration to Europe
Immigration to Europe increased from the 1980s onward, as a result of people from developing countries wanting to escape war, oppression, natural disasters or poverty. Some EU countries saw a dramatic growth in immigration after World War II until the 1970s. Most European nations today have...
, and are stereotyped as spiritual and victims. Politically, organizations such as the Tibetan Youth Association in Europe attempt to cultivate a Tibetan identity for Tibetans in Europe. However, many Tibetan youths in Europe cannot speak a Tibetan language and do not feel they belong to a wider Tibetan community; such identity crises have on occasion led to drug dependency and crime.