Theory of heat
Encyclopedia
In the history of science
, the theory of heat or mechanical theory of heat was a theory, introduced predominantly in 1824 by the French physicist Sadi Carnot
, that heat
and mechanical work
are equivalent. It is related to the mechanical equivalent of heat
. Over the next century, with the introduction of the second law of thermodynamics
in 1850 by Rudolf Clausius
, this theory evolved into the science of thermodynamics
. In 1851, in his "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat", William Thomson
outlined the view, as based on recent experiments by those such as James Joule, that “heat is not a substance, but a dynamical form of mechanical effect, we perceive that there must be an equivalence between mechanical work and heat, as between cause and effect.”
In the years to follow, the phrase the "dynamical theory of heat" slowly evolved into the new science of thermodynamics
. In 1876, for instance, American civil engineer Richard Sears McCulloh, in his Treatise on the Mechanical Theory of Heat, stated that: “the mechanical theory of heat, sometimes called thermo-dynamics, is that branch of science which treats of the phenomena of heat as effects of motion and position.”
This term was used in 19th centuries to describe a number of laws, relations, and experimental phenomenon in relation to heat
; those such as thermometry, calorimetry
, combustion
, specific heat, and discussions as to the quantity of heat released or absorbed during the expansion or compression of a gas, etc. One of the most famous publications, in this direction, was the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell
’s 1871 book Theory of Heat, which introduced the world to Maxwell's demon
, among others. Another famous paper, preceding this one, is the 1850 article On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat by the German physicist and mathematician Rudolf Clausius
in which the concept of entropy
began to take from.
The term “theory of heat”, being associated with either vibratory motion or energy
, was generally used in contrast to the caloric theory
, which views heat as a fluid or a weightless gas able to move in and out of pores in solids and found between atoms. In an 1807 journal of Nicholson’s, as an example, we find: “…it is well known that Count Rumford adheres to the old theory of heat being simply a vibratory motion of the particles of bodies.” However, both these viewangles are actually compatible under the principle of energy conservation
and corresponding first law of thermodynamics
.
From modern perspective, the formal equivalence
of heat
and mechanical vibrations (or motions
) does not mean they are physically identical. The fundamental difference of these two concepts shows particularly clearly in spectroscopy
. While sharp spectral lines are usually associated with mechanical vibrations, the heat shows only a "random" spectrum with some distribution function (white noise
, etc.)
Science
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe...
, the theory of heat or mechanical theory of heat was a theory, introduced predominantly in 1824 by the French physicist Sadi Carnot
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot was a French military engineer who, in his 1824 Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire, gave the first successful theoretical account of heat engines, now known as the Carnot cycle, thereby laying the foundations of the second law of thermodynamics...
, that heat
Heat
In physics and thermodynamics, heat is energy transferred from one body, region, or thermodynamic system to another due to thermal contact or thermal radiation when the systems are at different temperatures. It is often described as one of the fundamental processes of energy transfer between...
and mechanical work
Mechanical work
In physics, work is a scalar quantity that can be described as the product of a force times the distance through which it acts, and it is called the work of the force. Only the component of a force in the direction of the movement of its point of application does work...
are equivalent. It is related to the mechanical equivalent of heat
Mechanical equivalent of heat
In the history of science, the mechanical equivalent of heat was a concept that had an important part in the development and acceptance of the conservation of energy and the establishment of the science of thermodynamics in the 19th century....
. Over the next century, with the introduction of the second law of thermodynamics
Second law of thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics is an expression of the tendency that over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential equilibrate in an isolated physical system. From the state of thermodynamic equilibrium, the law deduced the principle of the increase of entropy and...
in 1850 by Rudolf Clausius
Rudolf Clausius
Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius , was a German physicist and mathematician and is considered one of the central founders of the science of thermodynamics. By his restatement of Sadi Carnot's principle known as the Carnot cycle, he put the theory of heat on a truer and sounder basis...
, this theory evolved into the science of thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a physical science that studies the effects on material bodies, and on radiation in regions of space, of transfer of heat and of work done on or by the bodies or radiation...
. In 1851, in his "On the Dynamical Theory of Heat", William Thomson
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin
William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin OM, GCVO, PC, PRS, PRSE, was a mathematical physicist and engineer. At the University of Glasgow he did important work in the mathematical analysis of electricity and formulation of the first and second laws of thermodynamics, and did much to unify the emerging...
outlined the view, as based on recent experiments by those such as James Joule, that “heat is not a substance, but a dynamical form of mechanical effect, we perceive that there must be an equivalence between mechanical work and heat, as between cause and effect.”
In the years to follow, the phrase the "dynamical theory of heat" slowly evolved into the new science of thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is a physical science that studies the effects on material bodies, and on radiation in regions of space, of transfer of heat and of work done on or by the bodies or radiation...
. In 1876, for instance, American civil engineer Richard Sears McCulloh, in his Treatise on the Mechanical Theory of Heat, stated that: “the mechanical theory of heat, sometimes called thermo-dynamics, is that branch of science which treats of the phenomena of heat as effects of motion and position.”
This term was used in 19th centuries to describe a number of laws, relations, and experimental phenomenon in relation to heat
Heat
In physics and thermodynamics, heat is energy transferred from one body, region, or thermodynamic system to another due to thermal contact or thermal radiation when the systems are at different temperatures. It is often described as one of the fundamental processes of energy transfer between...
; those such as thermometry, calorimetry
Calorimetry
Calorimetry is the science of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes. Calorimetry is performed with a calorimeter. The word calorimetry is derived from the Latin word calor, meaning heat...
, combustion
Combustion
Combustion or burning is the sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species. The release of heat can result in the production of light in the form of either glowing or a flame...
, specific heat, and discussions as to the quantity of heat released or absorbed during the expansion or compression of a gas, etc. One of the most famous publications, in this direction, was the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell
James Clerk Maxwell
James Clerk Maxwell of Glenlair was a Scottish physicist and mathematician. His most prominent achievement was formulating classical electromagnetic theory. This united all previously unrelated observations, experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism and optics into a consistent theory...
’s 1871 book Theory of Heat, which introduced the world to Maxwell's demon
Maxwell's demon
In the philosophy of thermal and statistical physics, Maxwell's demon is a thought experiment created by the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell to "show that the Second Law of Thermodynamics has only a statistical certainty." It demonstrates Maxwell's point by hypothetically describing how to...
, among others. Another famous paper, preceding this one, is the 1850 article On the Motive Power of Heat, and on the Laws which can be deduced from it for the Theory of Heat by the German physicist and mathematician Rudolf Clausius
Rudolf Clausius
Rudolf Julius Emanuel Clausius , was a German physicist and mathematician and is considered one of the central founders of the science of thermodynamics. By his restatement of Sadi Carnot's principle known as the Carnot cycle, he put the theory of heat on a truer and sounder basis...
in which the concept of entropy
Entropy
Entropy is a thermodynamic property that can be used to determine the energy available for useful work in a thermodynamic process, such as in energy conversion devices, engines, or machines. Such devices can only be driven by convertible energy, and have a theoretical maximum efficiency when...
began to take from.
The term “theory of heat”, being associated with either vibratory motion or energy
Energy
In physics, energy is an indirectly observed quantity. It is often understood as the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems...
, was generally used in contrast to the caloric theory
Caloric theory
The caloric theory is an obsolete scientific theory that heat consists of a self-repellent fluid called caloric that flows from hotter bodies to colder bodies. Caloric was also thought of as a weightless gas that could pass in and out of pores in solids and liquids...
, which views heat as a fluid or a weightless gas able to move in and out of pores in solids and found between atoms. In an 1807 journal of Nicholson’s, as an example, we find: “…it is well known that Count Rumford adheres to the old theory of heat being simply a vibratory motion of the particles of bodies.” However, both these viewangles are actually compatible under the principle of energy conservation
Energy conservation
Energy conservation refers to efforts made to reduce energy consumption. Energy conservation can be achieved through increased efficient energy use, in conjunction with decreased energy consumption and/or reduced consumption from conventional energy sources...
and corresponding first law of thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the principle of conservation of work.The law states that energy can be transformed, i.e. changed from one form to another, but cannot be created nor destroyed...
.
From modern perspective, the formal equivalence
Equivalence
Equivalence or equivalent may refer to:*In chemistry:**Equivalent **Equivalence point**Equivalent weight*In computing:**Turing equivalence *In ethics:**Moral equivalence*In history:...
of heat
Heat
In physics and thermodynamics, heat is energy transferred from one body, region, or thermodynamic system to another due to thermal contact or thermal radiation when the systems are at different temperatures. It is often described as one of the fundamental processes of energy transfer between...
and mechanical vibrations (or motions
Motion (physics)
In physics, motion is a change in position of an object with respect to time. Change in action is the result of an unbalanced force. Motion is typically described in terms of velocity, acceleration, displacement and time . An object's velocity cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force, as...
) does not mean they are physically identical. The fundamental difference of these two concepts shows particularly clearly in spectroscopy
Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy. Historically, spectroscopy originated through the study of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, e.g., by a prism. Later the concept was expanded greatly to comprise any interaction with radiative...
. While sharp spectral lines are usually associated with mechanical vibrations, the heat shows only a "random" spectrum with some distribution function (white noise
White noise
White noise is a random signal with a flat power spectral density. In other words, the signal contains equal power within a fixed bandwidth at any center frequency...
, etc.)
See also
- ColdColdCold describes the condition of low temperature.Cold may also refer to:*Common cold, a contagious viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system*Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease...
- History of thermodynamicsHistory of thermodynamicsThe history of thermodynamics is a fundamental strand in the history of physics, the history of chemistry, and the history of science in general...
- Larmor formulaLarmor formulaIn physics, in the area of electrodynamics, the Larmor formula is used to calculate the total power radiated by a nonrelativistic point charge as it accelerates. It was first derived by J. J...
- Phlogiston
- ThermodynamicsThermodynamicsThermodynamics is a physical science that studies the effects on material bodies, and on radiation in regions of space, of transfer of heat and of work done on or by the bodies or radiation...
- Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processesTimeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processesA timeline of events related to thermodynamics.- Before 1800 :* 1650 – Otto von Guericke builds the first vacuum pump* 1660 – Robert Boyle experimentally discovers Boyle's Law, relating the pressure and volume of a gas...
External links
- Fourier and the Theory of Heat – Massachusetts Institute of Technology
- Mechanical Theory of Heat - Rochester Institute of Technology
- Heat – Eric Weisstein’s World of Physics (has good "theory of heat" book reference list)