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Theodora (11th century)
Encyclopedia
Theodora was a Byzantine Empress. Born into the Macedonian dynasty
that had ruled the Byzantine Empire
for almost two hundred years, she was co-empress with her sister Zoe
for two months in 1042 and sole empress from 11 January 1055 to after 31 August 1056. She was the last of the Macedonian line, and upon her death, the empire entered a period of decline that lasted until the accession of Alexios I Komnenos in 1081.
. Her position as an eligible imperial princess saw her considered as a possible bride for the Holy Roman Emperor
in the west, Otto III in 996. Apparently a very plain woman, she was overlooked in favour of her sister Zoe
, who was selected as the potential bride, but Otto III died before she could be wed. From that point onwards, Theodora lived a life of virtual total obscurity in the imperial gynaeceum
until circumstances (her uncle Basil II dying childless and her dying father not siring any sons) forced her into the centre of imperial politics. Intelligent, and possessing a strong and austere character, Theodora defied her father by refusing to marry the man he had chosen to succeed him, Romanos Argyros, on the pretext that, firstly, Romanos was already married – his wife having become a monastic
to allow Romanos to marry into the imperial family. Secondly, she claimed that since Romanos and she were third cousins, it was too close a blood relationship for marriage to occur. Consequently, Constantine VIII was forced to choose Theodora’s sister, Zoe
, who married Romanos instead in 1028.
With the accession of Romanos, Theodora prudently retreated back into the gynaeceum, with its daily religious routines, but this did not preserve her from her sister’s jealousy. Never having forgiven Theodora for being their father’s first choice, Zoe persuaded her husband to appoint one of his own men as the chief of Theodora’s household, with orders to spy on her. Shortly afterwards, Theodora was accused of plotting to usurp the throne with Presian of Bulgaria
. Although Presian was blinded and then sent to a monastery, Theodora was not condemned, but in 1031 she was again implicated in another conspiracy, this time with Constantine Diogenes, the Archon
of Sirmium
. She was accused of being part of the conspiracy, and was forcibly confined in the monastery
of Petrion. Zoe later visited her sister and forced her to take Holy Orders
. She would remain there for the next thirteen years, as Zoe managed the empire with her husbands, Romanos III and, after his death, Michael IV.
on charges of attempted regicide. This treatment of the legitimate heir to the Macedonian Dynasty caused a popular uprising in Constantinople
, and on 19 April 1042, the people dethroned Michael V in support of not only Zoe, but Theodora as well. Michael V, desperate to keep his throne, initially brought Zoe back from Princes’ Island and displayed her to the people, but his insistence that he continue to rule alongside Zoe was rejected. Key members of the court decided that flighty Zoe needed a co-ruler, and that it should be her sister Theodora. A delegation headed by the Patrician
Constantine Cabasilas went to the monastery at Petrion to convince Theodora to become co-empress alongside her sister. Theodora rejected their pleas out of hand, and fled to the convent chapel to seek sanctuary. Constantine and his retinue pursued her, forcibly dragged her out and exchanged her monastic clothes for imperial ones. At an assembly at Hagia Sophia
, the people escorted a furious Theodora from Petrion, and proclaimed her empress along with Zoe. After crowning Theodora, the mob stormed the palace, forcing Michael V to escape to a monastery.
Zoe immediately assumed power and tried to force Theodora back to her monastery, but the Senate
and the people demanded that the two sisters should jointly reign. In her first act, Theodora was called upon to do what her sister would not—deal with Michael V. Zoe, weak and easily manipulated, wanted to pardon and free Michael. Theodora was made of firmer stuff; at first she guaranteed Michael’s safety before she ordered that Michael be blinded and spend the rest of his life as a monk. With Michael V dealt with, Theodora refused to leave Hagia Sophia until she had received word from Zoe, some 24 hours after Theodora had been crowned. Officially, while Theodora was the junior empress, and her throne was situated slightly behind Zoe’s in all public occasions, she was the driving force behind the joint administration. Both sisters then proceeded to administer the empire, focusing on curbing the sale of public offices and the administration of justice. Although Michael Psellus claimed the joint reign was a complete failure, John Scylitzes stated that they were very conscientious in rectifying the abuses of the previous reigns.
Although Theodora and Zoe appeared together at meetings of the Senate, or when they gave public audiences, it was soon apparent that their joint reign was under considerable strain. Zoe was still jealous of Theodora, and had no desire to administer the empire, but would not allow Theodora to conduct public business alone. The court soon began to split in two, with factions forming behind each empress. After two months of increasing acrimony between the two, Zoe decided to search for a new husband, thereby denying Theodora the opportunity to increase her influence, stemming from her sister’s obvious talents for governing. She eventually married Constantine IX Monomachos, on 11 June 1042, and the management of the empire reverted to him. Although officially Theodora and Zoe continued to be recognised as empresses and Theodora continued to appear at all official functions, all power devolved onto her brother-in-law. Nevertheless she was still able to exert some influence at court, as demonstrated by her ordering the arrest and blinding of John the Eunuch
, the powerful minister who ran the courts of Romanos III, Michael IV and Michael V, and who had been living in exile after the fall of Michael V.
Constantine IX’s preferential treatment of his mistress in the early part of his reign saw rumours spread that he was planning to murder both Zoe and Theodora. This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which was only quietened by the appearance of Zoe and Theodora at a balcony, who reassured the mob that they were not in any danger of assassination.
John, to ignore the rights of Theodora and to pass the throne to the doux
(Duke) of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon. However, their plans were pre-empted by Theodora, who, in spite of her seventy years of age, vigorously reasserted her dormant rights to rule. She was brought out of her retirement in a convent
, convened the Senate and was proclaimed "emperor" by the imperial guard shortly before Constantine's death.
A purge of senior officials and the leadership of the European military units followed. Nikephoros Bryennios
, whom the western tagma
ta apparently wanted to proclaim emperor instead, was also dismissed and exiled on Theodora’s orders, after which she confiscated his estates and banished his supporters from court.
Her second period of rule proceeded where the first left off. By her firm administration she controlled the unruly nobles and checked numerous abuses; but she damaged her reputation by excessive severity toward private enemies and the undue employment of menials for advisers, including her influential minister Leo Paraspondylos. Military and court offices were filled by her household eunuchs, and even able commanders such as Isaac Komnenos were replaced by minor functionaries. Determined to centralise as much power in her hands as possible, she presided in person in the Senate, and heard appeals as supreme judge in civil cases. Her appointment of clerics offended the Patriarch Michael Keroularios, who considered this the duty of men, not women.
Inevitably, Leo Paraspondylos's faction was interested in maintaining its control of government through the aging empress, while the patriarch Michael Keroularios advocated that Theodora advance a subject to the throne through marriage to her, something which would have assured the succession. This was not accomplished.
Theodora became gravely ill with an intestinal disorder in late August 1056, and died a few days later, on 31 August 1056, at the age of 76. Having no children and being the last member of her dynasty, she had chosen one of her favorites, the former military finance minister
, Michael VI Bringas, as her successor on the recommendation of her chief minister, Leo Paraspondylos. Hoping to recover her health, Theodora made her chosen successor swear that he would always obey her orders while she was alive. In the end he would not have to obey her long, as Theodora survived his nomination for a few hours only.
As Michael VI was not related to the Macedonian dynasty that had ruled the Byzantine Empire for 189 years, he did not receive universal support. This lack of support resulted in a series of conflicts for the throne among various noble families that lasted from 1056 until 1081 until the arrival of the Komnenian dynasty.
Macedonian dynasty
The Macedonian dynasty ruled the Byzantine Empire from 867 to 1056, following the Amorian dynasty. During this period, the Byzantine state reached its greatest expanse since the Muslim conquests, and the Macedonian Renaissance in letters and arts began. The dynasty was named after its founder,...
that had ruled the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
for almost two hundred years, she was co-empress with her sister Zoe
Zoe (empress)
Zoe reigned as Byzantine Empress alongside her sister Theodora from April 19 to June 11, 1042...
for two months in 1042 and sole empress from 11 January 1055 to after 31 August 1056. She was the last of the Macedonian line, and upon her death, the empire entered a period of decline that lasted until the accession of Alexios I Komnenos in 1081.
Early life
She was the youngest daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VIII and Helena, daughter of AlypiusHelena, daughter of Alypius
Helena, daughter of Alypius was the wife of Constantine VIII, Emperor of Constantinople.-Life:The Chronographia by Michael Psellos mentions her only briefly:...
. Her position as an eligible imperial princess saw her considered as a possible bride for the Holy Roman Emperor
Holy Roman Emperor
The Holy Roman Emperor is a term used by historians to denote a medieval ruler who, as German King, had also received the title of "Emperor of the Romans" from the Pope...
in the west, Otto III in 996. Apparently a very plain woman, she was overlooked in favour of her sister Zoe
Zoe (empress)
Zoe reigned as Byzantine Empress alongside her sister Theodora from April 19 to June 11, 1042...
, who was selected as the potential bride, but Otto III died before she could be wed. From that point onwards, Theodora lived a life of virtual total obscurity in the imperial gynaeceum
Gynaeceum
A Gynaeceum or Gynaeconitis in Ancient Greece was a building or was the portion of a house reserved for women, generally the innermost apartment. In other words, a women's quarters, similar to the Persian zenana...
until circumstances (her uncle Basil II dying childless and her dying father not siring any sons) forced her into the centre of imperial politics. Intelligent, and possessing a strong and austere character, Theodora defied her father by refusing to marry the man he had chosen to succeed him, Romanos Argyros, on the pretext that, firstly, Romanos was already married – his wife having become a monastic
Nun
A nun is a woman who has taken vows committing her to live a spiritual life. She may be an ascetic who voluntarily chooses to leave mainstream society and live her life in prayer and contemplation in a monastery or convent...
to allow Romanos to marry into the imperial family. Secondly, she claimed that since Romanos and she were third cousins, it was too close a blood relationship for marriage to occur. Consequently, Constantine VIII was forced to choose Theodora’s sister, Zoe
Zoe (empress)
Zoe reigned as Byzantine Empress alongside her sister Theodora from April 19 to June 11, 1042...
, who married Romanos instead in 1028.
With the accession of Romanos, Theodora prudently retreated back into the gynaeceum, with its daily religious routines, but this did not preserve her from her sister’s jealousy. Never having forgiven Theodora for being their father’s first choice, Zoe persuaded her husband to appoint one of his own men as the chief of Theodora’s household, with orders to spy on her. Shortly afterwards, Theodora was accused of plotting to usurp the throne with Presian of Bulgaria
Presian II of Bulgaria
Presian II was emperor of Bulgaria for a short time in 1018. The year of his birth may have been 996/997; he may have died in exile in 1060/1061...
. Although Presian was blinded and then sent to a monastery, Theodora was not condemned, but in 1031 she was again implicated in another conspiracy, this time with Constantine Diogenes, the Archon
Archon
Archon is a Greek word that means "ruler" or "lord", frequently used as the title of a specific public office. It is the masculine present participle of the verb stem ἀρχ-, meaning "to rule", derived from the same root as monarch, hierarchy, and anarchy.- Ancient Greece :In ancient Greece the...
of Sirmium
Sirmium
Sirmium was a city in ancient Roman Pannonia. Firstly mentioned in the 4th century BC and originally inhabited by the Illyrians and Celts, it was conquered by the Romans in the 1st century BC and subsequently became the capital of the Roman province of Lower Pannonia. In 294 AD, Sirmium was...
. She was accused of being part of the conspiracy, and was forcibly confined in the monastery
Monastery
Monastery denotes the building, or complex of buildings, that houses a room reserved for prayer as well as the domestic quarters and workplace of monastics, whether monks or nuns, and whether living in community or alone .Monasteries may vary greatly in size – a small dwelling accommodating only...
of Petrion. Zoe later visited her sister and forced her to take Holy Orders
Holy Orders
The term Holy Orders is used by many Christian churches to refer to ordination or to those individuals ordained for a special role or ministry....
. She would remain there for the next thirteen years, as Zoe managed the empire with her husbands, Romanos III and, after his death, Michael IV.
Co-empress with Zoe
With Michael IV’s death in December 1041, Zoe adopted Michael’s nephew, who was crowned as Michael V. Although he promised to respect Zoe, he promptly banished her to a monastery on Princes' IslandsPrinces' Islands
The Princes' Islands , are a chain of nine islands off the coast of Istanbul, Turkey, in the Sea of Marmara. The islands also constitute the Adalar district of Istanbul Province...
on charges of attempted regicide. This treatment of the legitimate heir to the Macedonian Dynasty caused a popular uprising in Constantinople
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
, and on 19 April 1042, the people dethroned Michael V in support of not only Zoe, but Theodora as well. Michael V, desperate to keep his throne, initially brought Zoe back from Princes’ Island and displayed her to the people, but his insistence that he continue to rule alongside Zoe was rejected. Key members of the court decided that flighty Zoe needed a co-ruler, and that it should be her sister Theodora. A delegation headed by the Patrician
Patrician
The term patrician originally referred to a group of elite families in ancient Rome, including both their natural and adopted members. In the late Roman Empire, the class was broadened to include high council officials, and after the fall of the Western Empire it remained a high honorary title in...
Constantine Cabasilas went to the monastery at Petrion to convince Theodora to become co-empress alongside her sister. Theodora rejected their pleas out of hand, and fled to the convent chapel to seek sanctuary. Constantine and his retinue pursued her, forcibly dragged her out and exchanged her monastic clothes for imperial ones. At an assembly at Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia is a former Orthodox patriarchal basilica, later a mosque, and now a museum in Istanbul, Turkey...
, the people escorted a furious Theodora from Petrion, and proclaimed her empress along with Zoe. After crowning Theodora, the mob stormed the palace, forcing Michael V to escape to a monastery.
Zoe immediately assumed power and tried to force Theodora back to her monastery, but the Senate
Byzantine Senate
The Byzantine Senate or Eastern Roman Senate was the continuation of the Roman Senate, established in the 4th century by Constantine I. It survived for centuries but was increasingly irrelevant until its eventual disappearance in the 13th century....
and the people demanded that the two sisters should jointly reign. In her first act, Theodora was called upon to do what her sister would not—deal with Michael V. Zoe, weak and easily manipulated, wanted to pardon and free Michael. Theodora was made of firmer stuff; at first she guaranteed Michael’s safety before she ordered that Michael be blinded and spend the rest of his life as a monk. With Michael V dealt with, Theodora refused to leave Hagia Sophia until she had received word from Zoe, some 24 hours after Theodora had been crowned. Officially, while Theodora was the junior empress, and her throne was situated slightly behind Zoe’s in all public occasions, she was the driving force behind the joint administration. Both sisters then proceeded to administer the empire, focusing on curbing the sale of public offices and the administration of justice. Although Michael Psellus claimed the joint reign was a complete failure, John Scylitzes stated that they were very conscientious in rectifying the abuses of the previous reigns.
Although Theodora and Zoe appeared together at meetings of the Senate, or when they gave public audiences, it was soon apparent that their joint reign was under considerable strain. Zoe was still jealous of Theodora, and had no desire to administer the empire, but would not allow Theodora to conduct public business alone. The court soon began to split in two, with factions forming behind each empress. After two months of increasing acrimony between the two, Zoe decided to search for a new husband, thereby denying Theodora the opportunity to increase her influence, stemming from her sister’s obvious talents for governing. She eventually married Constantine IX Monomachos, on 11 June 1042, and the management of the empire reverted to him. Although officially Theodora and Zoe continued to be recognised as empresses and Theodora continued to appear at all official functions, all power devolved onto her brother-in-law. Nevertheless she was still able to exert some influence at court, as demonstrated by her ordering the arrest and blinding of John the Eunuch
John the Eunuch
John the Eunuch, also known as the Orphanotrophos , was the chief court eunuch during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Romanus III . Being unable to father children himself, he sought to found a dynasty for his family through his brother Michael, to which end he introduced him to the reigning...
, the powerful minister who ran the courts of Romanos III, Michael IV and Michael V, and who had been living in exile after the fall of Michael V.
Constantine IX’s preferential treatment of his mistress in the early part of his reign saw rumours spread that he was planning to murder both Zoe and Theodora. This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which was only quietened by the appearance of Zoe and Theodora at a balcony, who reassured the mob that they were not in any danger of assassination.
Return to power
Zoe eventually died in 1050, while Constantine IX eventually passed away on 11 January 1055. As Constantine lay dying, he was persuaded by his councillors, chiefly the logothetes tou dromouLogothetes tou dromou
The logothetēs tou dromou , in English usually rendered as Logothete of the Course/Drome/Dromos or Postal Logothete, was the head of the department of the Dromos, the Public Post , and one of the most senior ministers of the Byzantine Empire.- History and functions :The exact origin and date of...
John, to ignore the rights of Theodora and to pass the throne to the doux
Dux
Dux is Latin for leader and later for Duke and its variant forms ....
(Duke) of Bulgaria, Nikephoros Proteuon. However, their plans were pre-empted by Theodora, who, in spite of her seventy years of age, vigorously reasserted her dormant rights to rule. She was brought out of her retirement in a convent
Convent
A convent is either a community of priests, religious brothers, religious sisters, or nuns, or the building used by the community, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church and in the Anglican Communion...
, convened the Senate and was proclaimed "emperor" by the imperial guard shortly before Constantine's death.
A purge of senior officials and the leadership of the European military units followed. Nikephoros Bryennios
Nikephoros Bryennios (ethnarch)
Nikephoros Bryennios , Latinized as Nicephorus Bryennius, was an important Byzantine general who was involved in rebellions against the empress Theodora and later the emperor Michael VI Stratiotikos.- Career :...
, whom the western tagma
Tagma (military)
The tagma is a term for a military unit of battalion or regiment size. The best-known and most technical use of the term however refers to the elite regiments formed by Byzantine emperor Constantine V and comprising the central army of the Byzantine Empire in the 8th–11th centuries.-History and...
ta apparently wanted to proclaim emperor instead, was also dismissed and exiled on Theodora’s orders, after which she confiscated his estates and banished his supporters from court.
Her second period of rule proceeded where the first left off. By her firm administration she controlled the unruly nobles and checked numerous abuses; but she damaged her reputation by excessive severity toward private enemies and the undue employment of menials for advisers, including her influential minister Leo Paraspondylos. Military and court offices were filled by her household eunuchs, and even able commanders such as Isaac Komnenos were replaced by minor functionaries. Determined to centralise as much power in her hands as possible, she presided in person in the Senate, and heard appeals as supreme judge in civil cases. Her appointment of clerics offended the Patriarch Michael Keroularios, who considered this the duty of men, not women.
Inevitably, Leo Paraspondylos's faction was interested in maintaining its control of government through the aging empress, while the patriarch Michael Keroularios advocated that Theodora advance a subject to the throne through marriage to her, something which would have assured the succession. This was not accomplished.
Theodora became gravely ill with an intestinal disorder in late August 1056, and died a few days later, on 31 August 1056, at the age of 76. Having no children and being the last member of her dynasty, she had chosen one of her favorites, the former military finance minister
Logothetes tou stratiotikou
The logothetēs toū stratiōtikou , rendered in English as the Logothete of the Military or Military Logothete, was a Byzantine imperial official in charge of the pay and provisioning of the Byzantine army.-History and functions:...
, Michael VI Bringas, as her successor on the recommendation of her chief minister, Leo Paraspondylos. Hoping to recover her health, Theodora made her chosen successor swear that he would always obey her orders while she was alive. In the end he would not have to obey her long, as Theodora survived his nomination for a few hours only.
As Michael VI was not related to the Macedonian dynasty that had ruled the Byzantine Empire for 189 years, he did not receive universal support. This lack of support resulted in a series of conflicts for the throne among various noble families that lasted from 1056 until 1081 until the arrival of the Komnenian dynasty.
Secondary Sources
- George Finlay, History of the Byzantine Empire from 716 – 1057, William Blackwood & Sons, 1853