Superbase
Encyclopedia
In chemistry
, a superbase is an extremely strong base
, that is a compound that has a high affinity for protons. Hydroxide ion is the strongest base possible in aqueous solutions, but bases exist with pKb's well outside of the aqueous range. Such bases are valuable in organic synthesis
and are fundamental to physical organic chemistry
. Superbases have been described and used since the 1850s. Reactions involving superbases often require special techniques since they are destroyed by water and atmospheric carbon dioxide as well as oxygen. Inert atmosphere techniques and low temperatures minimize these side reactions.
." Caubère defines superbases qualitatively but more precisely:
"The term superbases should only be applied to bases resulting from a mixing of two (or more) bases leading to new basic species possessing inherent new properties. The term superbase does not mean a base is thermodynamically and/or kinetically stronger than another, instead it means that a basic reagent is created by combining the characteristics of several different bases."
Superbases have also been defined semi-quantitatively as any species with a higher absolute proton affinity (APA = 245.3 kcal/mol) and intrinsic gas phase basicity (GB = 239 kcal/mol) than Alder's
canonical proton sponge (1,8-bis-(dimethylamino)-naphthalene).
, organometallic and inorganic.
s, amidines and guanidines. Other organic compounds also meet the physicochemical or structural definitions of 'superbase'. Proton chelators like the aromatic proton sponges and the bispidines are also superbases. Multicyclic polyamines, like DABCO
might also be loosely included in this category.
s) or nitrogen (metal amides such as lithium diisopropylamide
). A desirable property in many cases is low nucleophilicity, i.e. a non-nucleophilic base. Unhindered alkyllithiums, for example, cannot be used with electrophiles such as carbonyl
groups, because they attack the electrophiles as nucleophiles.
In organic synthesis, the Schlosser base (or Lochmann-Schlosser base), the combination of n-butyllithium
and potassium tert-butoxide
, is a commonly used superbase. n-Butyllithium and potassium tert-butoxide form a mixed aggregate of greater reactivity than either reagent alone and with distinctly different properties in comparison to tert-butylpotassium.
. Alkali and earth alkali metal hydrides potassium hydride
and sodium hydride
are superbases. Such species are insoluble in all solvents owing to the strong cation-anion interactions, but the surfaces of these materials are highly reactive and slurries are useful in synthesis.
Chemistry
Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
, a superbase is an extremely strong base
Base (chemistry)
For the term in genetics, see base A base in chemistry is a substance that can accept hydrogen ions or more generally, donate electron pairs. A soluble base is referred to as an alkali if it contains and releases hydroxide ions quantitatively...
, that is a compound that has a high affinity for protons. Hydroxide ion is the strongest base possible in aqueous solutions, but bases exist with pKb's well outside of the aqueous range. Such bases are valuable in organic synthesis
Organic synthesis
Organic synthesis is a special branch of chemical synthesis and is concerned with the construction of organic compounds via organic reactions. Organic molecules can often contain a higher level of complexity compared to purely inorganic compounds, so the synthesis of organic compounds has...
and are fundamental to physical organic chemistry
Physical organic chemistry
Physical organic chemistry is the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. It can be seen as the study of organic chemistry using tools of physical chemistry such as chemical equilibrium, chemical kinetics, thermochemistry, and quantum chemistry...
. Superbases have been described and used since the 1850s. Reactions involving superbases often require special techniques since they are destroyed by water and atmospheric carbon dioxide as well as oxygen. Inert atmosphere techniques and low temperatures minimize these side reactions.
Definitions
IUPAC defines superbases simply as a "compound having a very high basicity, such as lithium diisopropylamideLithium diisopropylamide
Lithium diisopropylamide is the chemical compound with the formula [2CH]2NLi. Generally abbreviated LDA, it is a strong base used in organic chemistry for the deprotonation of weakly acidic compounds. The reagent has been widely accepted because it is soluble in non-polar organic solvents and it...
." Caubère defines superbases qualitatively but more precisely:
"The term superbases should only be applied to bases resulting from a mixing of two (or more) bases leading to new basic species possessing inherent new properties. The term superbase does not mean a base is thermodynamically and/or kinetically stronger than another, instead it means that a basic reagent is created by combining the characteristics of several different bases."
Superbases have also been defined semi-quantitatively as any species with a higher absolute proton affinity (APA = 245.3 kcal/mol) and intrinsic gas phase basicity (GB = 239 kcal/mol) than Alder's
Roger Alder
Roger William Alder, FRS is an Emeritus Professor of organic chemistry at the University of Bristol.His research involves the study of novel compounds with unusual properties, such as proton sponges and stable carbenes.-External links:*...
canonical proton sponge (1,8-bis-(dimethylamino)-naphthalene).
Classes of superbases
There are three main classes of superbases: organicOrganic compound
An organic compound is any member of a large class of gaseous, liquid, or solid chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. For historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds such as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon, and cyanides, as well as the...
, organometallic and inorganic.
Organic
Organic superbases are almost always neutral, nitrogen-containing species. Despite enormous proton affinity, organosuperbases are prized for their heightened reactivity tempered by low nucleophilicity and relatively mild conditions of use. Increasingly important in organic synthesis, these include the phosphazenePhosphazene
Phosphazenes are a class of chemical compounds in which a phosphorus atom is covalently linked to a nitrogen atom by a double bond and to three other atoms or radicals by single bonds. While other substitutions produce relatively persistent compounds, in organic synthesis the term largely refers to...
s, amidines and guanidines. Other organic compounds also meet the physicochemical or structural definitions of 'superbase'. Proton chelators like the aromatic proton sponges and the bispidines are also superbases. Multicyclic polyamines, like DABCO
DABCO
DABCO or 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane is a chemical compound. It is a polyurethane and Baylis-Hillman reaction catalyst, complexing ligand and Lewis base. It is used to regulate the reaction rate in Flexplay time-limited DVDs by adjusting pH. Antioxidants, like DABCO, are used to improve the...
might also be loosely included in this category.
Organometallic
Organometallic compounds of reactive metals are often superbases, including organolithium and organomagnesium (Grignard reagent) compounds. Another type of organic superbase has a reactive metal exchanged for a hydrogen on a heteroatom, such as oxygen (unstabilized alkoxideAlkoxide
An alkoxide is the conjugate base of an alcohol and therefore consists of an organic group bonded to a negatively charged oxygen atom. They can be written as RO−, where R is the organic substituent. Alkoxides are strong bases and, when R is not bulky, good nucleophiles and good ligands...
s) or nitrogen (metal amides such as lithium diisopropylamide
Lithium diisopropylamide
Lithium diisopropylamide is the chemical compound with the formula [2CH]2NLi. Generally abbreviated LDA, it is a strong base used in organic chemistry for the deprotonation of weakly acidic compounds. The reagent has been widely accepted because it is soluble in non-polar organic solvents and it...
). A desirable property in many cases is low nucleophilicity, i.e. a non-nucleophilic base. Unhindered alkyllithiums, for example, cannot be used with electrophiles such as carbonyl
Carbonyl
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group composed of a carbon atom double-bonded to an oxygen atom: C=O. It is common to several classes of organic compounds, as part of many larger functional groups....
groups, because they attack the electrophiles as nucleophiles.
In organic synthesis, the Schlosser base (or Lochmann-Schlosser base), the combination of n-butyllithium
N-Butyllithium
n-Butyllithium is an organolithium reagent. It is widely used as a polymerization initiator in the production of elastomers such as polybutadiene or styrene-butadiene-styrene...
and potassium tert-butoxide
Potassium tert-butoxide
Potassium tert-butoxide is the chemical compound with the formula 3COK. This colourless solid is a strong base useful in organic synthesis. It exists as a tetrameric cubane-like cluster...
, is a commonly used superbase. n-Butyllithium and potassium tert-butoxide form a mixed aggregate of greater reactivity than either reagent alone and with distinctly different properties in comparison to tert-butylpotassium.
Inorganic
Inorganic superbases are typically salt-like compounds with small, highly charged anions, e.g. lithium nitrideLithium nitride
Lithium nitride is a compound of lithium and nitrogen with the formula Li3N. It is the only stable alkali metal nitride...
. Alkali and earth alkali metal hydrides potassium hydride
Potassium hydride
Potassium hydride, KH, is a chemical compound of potassium and hydrogen. It is a hydride of potassium. It reacts with water according to the reaction:...
and sodium hydride
Sodium hydride
Sodium hydride is the chemical compound with the empirical formula NaH. It is primarily used as a strong base in organic synthesis. NaH is representative of the saline hydrides, meaning it is a salt-like hydride, composed of Na+ and H− ions, in contrast to the more molecular hydrides such as...
are superbases. Such species are insoluble in all solvents owing to the strong cation-anion interactions, but the surfaces of these materials are highly reactive and slurries are useful in synthesis.