Sociology of terrorism
Encyclopedia
The sociology of terrorism is a developing subfield of sociology in the United States
that seeks to understand terrorism
as a social phenomenon and how individuals as well as nation states address it (not to be confused with terrorism studies, a branch of criminology
, which sometimes overlaps with the psychology of terrorism).
, which is loosely defined as the “scientific study of human interaction”, found little interest in the subject of terrorism before the attacks on September 11, 2001. Since 9/11, there has been a spike of interest in all sociological interactions related to terrorism such as moral panic
, organizational response and media coverage.
Terrorism was largely ignored by sociologists prior to September 11, 2001. The most comprehensive study into the definition of terrorism comes from a study by Weinberg, Pedahzur and Hirsch-Hoefler (2004) who examined 73 definitions of terrorism from 55 articles and concluded that terrorism is: "a politically motivated tactic involving the threat or use of force or violence in which the pursuit of publicity plays a significant role." However Weinberg, et. al point out that definitions of terrorism often ignore symbolic aspects of terrorism. Due to its focus on symbolism
, sociology has a unique vantage point from which to assess terror.
), S.E. Costanza (Central Connecticut State University
) and John C. Kilburn Jr. (Texas A&M International University
) are among prolific Sociologists of note to call for development of a sub-field of sociology related to Terrorism. Common topics that are part of the discourse of the sociology of Terrorism include: military spending, counter-terrorism
, the Algerian War of Independence
, Immigration, Privacy Issues and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
, where within these contexts questions of power, the definition of terrorism, propaganda, nationality, the media, etc. are asked. It is a subfield of sociology that attempts to discover how all these things come together and how society comes to understand terror and negotiate fear.
Early peer-reviewed post 9/11 literature from the sociology of Terrorism sub-field examined policing and citizen responses to terror during 9/11 (see: ). Early literature examined interactions between first-responders (police, rescue teams, etc.) and communities. Ramirez, Hoopes and Quinlan (2003) rightly predicted that police organizations would change fundamental styles of profiling people after 9/11 . According to DeLone (2007), most police agencies altered their mission statements after 9/11. There is strong reason to believe that even the smallest of local police agencies are apt to feel some kind of pressure to deal with the issue of terrorism .
More recent work in the sociology of Terrorism field is philosophical and reflective and has focused on issues such as moral panic
and over-spending after 9/11. Costanza and Kilburn (2005), in an article entitled: "Symbolic Security, Moral Panic and Public Sentiment: Toward a sociology of Counterterrorism" argued that issue of symbolism is of much import to understanding the war on terror . Using a classic symbolic interactionist perspective, they argue that strong public sentiment about the homeland security issue has driven policy moreso than real and concrete threats. Others argue that symbolism has led to agency a policy of “hypervigilance
” in agency decision-making that is costly and untestable.
Some sociologists and legal scholars have contemplated the potential consequences of aggressive (or militaristic) policing of terror threats have might negative implications for human rights which are of great interest to sociologists as a matter of social justice
. They argue that salient human emotions related to terror threats reshape public understanding of the perceived balance between the need for security and civil liberties. In a peer-reviewed article entitled: “Crouching tiger or phantom dragon? Examining the discourse on global cyber-terror”, Helms, Costanza and Johnson (2011) ask if it is possible that media hype at the national level could prompt an unnecessary and systemic over-pursuit of cyber-terror. They warn that such overreaction might lead to a "killswitch" policy which could give the federal government ultimate power over the internet.
Despite the quantitative
lean of modern sociology; Kilburn, Costanza, Borgeson and Metchik (2011) point out that there are several methodological barbs to effectively and scientifically assessing the effect of Homeland Security measures . In traditional Criminology
, the most quantitatively amenable starting point for measuring the effectiveness of any policing strategy (i.e.: Neighborhood Watch
, Gun Abatement, Foot Patrols, etc.) is to assess total financial costs against clearance rates or arrest rates. Since terrorism is such a rare event phenomena, measuring arrests would be a naive way to test policy effectiveness.
Another methodological problem in the developing sociology of Terrorism sub-field is one of finding operational measures for key concepts in the study of homeland security
(see: ). Both terrorism
and homeland security
are relatively new concepts for social scientists, and academicians have yet to agree on the matter of how to properly conceptualize these ideas
Along with the many professional peer-reviewed articles associated with the gamut of terror-related sociological issues, professional educators in the field of sociology, Criminology and Political Science have also been productive in organizing “sociology of Terrorism” classes and authoring textbooks to contribute to the profession.
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
that seeks to understand terrorism
Terrorism
Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, especially as a means of coercion. In the international community, however, terrorism has no universally agreed, legally binding, criminal law definition...
as a social phenomenon and how individuals as well as nation states address it (not to be confused with terrorism studies, a branch of criminology
Criminology
Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both the individual and in society...
, which sometimes overlaps with the psychology of terrorism).
Pre 9/11
Some exceptions withstanding, sociologySociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
, which is loosely defined as the “scientific study of human interaction”, found little interest in the subject of terrorism before the attacks on September 11, 2001. Since 9/11, there has been a spike of interest in all sociological interactions related to terrorism such as moral panic
Moral panic
A moral panic is the intensity of feeling expressed in a population about an issue that appears to threaten the social order. According to Stanley Cohen, author of Folk Devils and Moral Panics and credited creator of the term, a moral panic occurs when "[a] condition, episode, person or group of...
, organizational response and media coverage.
Terrorism was largely ignored by sociologists prior to September 11, 2001. The most comprehensive study into the definition of terrorism comes from a study by Weinberg, Pedahzur and Hirsch-Hoefler (2004) who examined 73 definitions of terrorism from 55 articles and concluded that terrorism is: "a politically motivated tactic involving the threat or use of force or violence in which the pursuit of publicity plays a significant role." However Weinberg, et. al point out that definitions of terrorism often ignore symbolic aspects of terrorism. Due to its focus on symbolism
Symbolism
Symbolism is the applied use of symbols. It is a representation that carries a particular meaning. It is a device in literature where an object represents an idea.A symbol is an object, action, or idea that represents something other than itself....
, sociology has a unique vantage point from which to assess terror.
Post 9/11
Since 9/11, Mathieu Deflem (University of South CarolinaUniversity of South Carolina
The University of South Carolina is a public, co-educational research university located in Columbia, South Carolina, United States, with 7 surrounding satellite campuses. Its historic campus covers over in downtown Columbia not far from the South Carolina State House...
), S.E. Costanza (Central Connecticut State University
Central Connecticut State University
Central Connecticut State University is a state university in New Britain, Connecticut, United States.The school was moved to its present campus in 1922...
) and John C. Kilburn Jr. (Texas A&M International University
Texas A&M International University
Texas A&M International University, often referred to as TAMIU, is a public, co-educational, state-supported university located in Laredo, Texas...
) are among prolific Sociologists of note to call for development of a sub-field of sociology related to Terrorism. Common topics that are part of the discourse of the sociology of Terrorism include: military spending, counter-terrorism
Counter-terrorism
Counter-terrorism is the practices, tactics, techniques, and strategies that governments, militaries, police departments and corporations adopt to prevent or in response to terrorist threats and/or acts, both real and imputed.The tactic of terrorism is available to insurgents and governments...
, the Algerian War of Independence
Algerian War of Independence
The Algerian War was a conflict between France and Algerian independence movements from 1954 to 1962, which led to Algeria's gaining its independence from France...
, Immigration, Privacy Issues and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
Israeli-Palestinian conflict
The Israeli–Palestinian conflict is the ongoing conflict between Israelis and Palestinians. The conflict is wide-ranging, and the term is also used in reference to the earlier phases of the same conflict, between Jewish and Zionist yishuv and the Arab population living in Palestine under Ottoman or...
, where within these contexts questions of power, the definition of terrorism, propaganda, nationality, the media, etc. are asked. It is a subfield of sociology that attempts to discover how all these things come together and how society comes to understand terror and negotiate fear.
Early peer-reviewed post 9/11 literature from the sociology of Terrorism sub-field examined policing and citizen responses to terror during 9/11 (see: ). Early literature examined interactions between first-responders (police, rescue teams, etc.) and communities. Ramirez, Hoopes and Quinlan (2003) rightly predicted that police organizations would change fundamental styles of profiling people after 9/11 . According to DeLone (2007), most police agencies altered their mission statements after 9/11. There is strong reason to believe that even the smallest of local police agencies are apt to feel some kind of pressure to deal with the issue of terrorism .
More recent work in the sociology of Terrorism field is philosophical and reflective and has focused on issues such as moral panic
Moral panic
A moral panic is the intensity of feeling expressed in a population about an issue that appears to threaten the social order. According to Stanley Cohen, author of Folk Devils and Moral Panics and credited creator of the term, a moral panic occurs when "[a] condition, episode, person or group of...
and over-spending after 9/11. Costanza and Kilburn (2005), in an article entitled: "Symbolic Security, Moral Panic and Public Sentiment: Toward a sociology of Counterterrorism" argued that issue of symbolism is of much import to understanding the war on terror . Using a classic symbolic interactionist perspective, they argue that strong public sentiment about the homeland security issue has driven policy moreso than real and concrete threats. Others argue that symbolism has led to agency a policy of “hypervigilance
Hypervigilance
Hypervigilance is an enhanced state of sensory sensitivity accompanied by an exaggerated intensity of behaviors whose purpose is to detect threats. Hypervigilance is also accompanied by a state of increased anxiety which can cause exhaustion. Other symptoms include: abnormally increased arousal, a...
” in agency decision-making that is costly and untestable.
Some sociologists and legal scholars have contemplated the potential consequences of aggressive (or militaristic) policing of terror threats have might negative implications for human rights which are of great interest to sociologists as a matter of social justice
Social justice
Social justice generally refers to the idea of creating a society or institution that is based on the principles of equality and solidarity, that understands and values human rights, and that recognizes the dignity of every human being. The term and modern concept of "social justice" was coined by...
. They argue that salient human emotions related to terror threats reshape public understanding of the perceived balance between the need for security and civil liberties. In a peer-reviewed article entitled: “Crouching tiger or phantom dragon? Examining the discourse on global cyber-terror”, Helms, Costanza and Johnson (2011) ask if it is possible that media hype at the national level could prompt an unnecessary and systemic over-pursuit of cyber-terror. They warn that such overreaction might lead to a "killswitch" policy which could give the federal government ultimate power over the internet.
Despite the quantitative
Quantitative
A quantitative property is one that exists in a range of magnitudes, and can therefore be measured with a number. Measurements of any particular quantitative property are expressed as a specific quantity, referred to as a unit, multiplied by a number. Examples of physical quantities are distance,...
lean of modern sociology; Kilburn, Costanza, Borgeson and Metchik (2011) point out that there are several methodological barbs to effectively and scientifically assessing the effect of Homeland Security measures . In traditional Criminology
Criminology
Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both the individual and in society...
, the most quantitatively amenable starting point for measuring the effectiveness of any policing strategy (i.e.: Neighborhood Watch
Neighborhood Watch
A neighborhood watch or neighbourhood watch , also called a crime watch or neighborhood crime watch, is an organized group of citizens devoted to crime and vandalism prevention within a neighborhood...
, Gun Abatement, Foot Patrols, etc.) is to assess total financial costs against clearance rates or arrest rates. Since terrorism is such a rare event phenomena, measuring arrests would be a naive way to test policy effectiveness.
Another methodological problem in the developing sociology of Terrorism sub-field is one of finding operational measures for key concepts in the study of homeland security
Homeland security
Homeland security is an umbrella term for security efforts to protect states against terrorist activity. Specifically, is a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the U.S., reduce America’s vulnerability to terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from attacks that do...
(see: ). Both terrorism
Terrorism
Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, especially as a means of coercion. In the international community, however, terrorism has no universally agreed, legally binding, criminal law definition...
and homeland security
Homeland security
Homeland security is an umbrella term for security efforts to protect states against terrorist activity. Specifically, is a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the U.S., reduce America’s vulnerability to terrorism, and minimize the damage and recover from attacks that do...
are relatively new concepts for social scientists, and academicians have yet to agree on the matter of how to properly conceptualize these ideas
Along with the many professional peer-reviewed articles associated with the gamut of terror-related sociological issues, professional educators in the field of sociology, Criminology and Political Science have also been productive in organizing “sociology of Terrorism” classes and authoring textbooks to contribute to the profession.