Rhetorical Situation
Encyclopedia
The Rhetorical Situation is the context of a rhetorical event that consists of an issue, an audience, and a set of constraints. Two leading views of the rhetorical situation exist today. One argues that a situation determines and brings about rhetoric, while the other proposes that rhetoric creates “situations” by making issues salient.
began the conversation in his 1968 piece titled “The Rhetorical Situation.” Bitzer wrote that rhetorical discourse is called into existence by situation. He defined the rhetorical situation as, “A complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced into the situation, and so constrain human decision or action as to bring about the significant modification of the exigence.” With any rhetorical discourse, a prior rhetorical situation exists. The rhetorical situation dictates the significant physical and verbal responses as well as the sorts of observations to be made. An example of this would be a President focusing on health care policy reform because it is an apparent problem. The situation, thus, calls for the President to respond with rhetorical discourse concerning this issue.
Although many situations may exist, not all situations can be defined as rhetorical situations, because speech cannot rectify the problem. Bitzer especially focuses on the sense of timing (kairos
) needed to speak about a situation in a way that can best remedy the exigence.
Three constituent parts make up any rhetorical situation.
: “By the very fact of selecting certain elements and presenting them to the audience, their importance and pertinency to the discussion are implied. Indeed such a choice endows these elements with a presence…”
In its essence Vatz claims that the definitive elements of rhetorical efforts are the struggle to create for a chosen audience(s) saliences or agendas, and then this creation is followed by the struggle to infuse the selected situation or facts with meaning or spin. What are we persuaded to talk about? What are we persuaded it means or signifies? Not: What does the situation make us talk about and what does it intrinsically mean?
This introduces the significance of subjectivity
in framing socio-political realities. Vatz believes that situations are created, for example, when a President uses his agenda-setting function to focus on a health care plan, therefore creating a “rhetorical situation” ( a situation determined by rhetoric). A rhetor thus holds more power by not being merely “controlled” by a situation, but by creating a situation and making it salient in language. Vatz thus emphasizes social construction in opposition to Bitzer’s realism
or objectivism.
While the two opinions have been widely recognized, Vatz reluctantly testified that his piece is less recognized than Bitzer’s. Vatz admits, while claiming that audience acceptance is not dispositive for measuring validity or predictive for future audience acceptance, that “more articles and professionals in our field cite his situational perspective than my rhetorical perspective.” Bitzer’s objectivism is clear, and easily taught as a method, however errant it may be according to Vatz's construction, for rhetorical criticism. Vatz claims that portraying rhetoric as situationally based vitiates rhetoric as an important field; portraying rhetoric as the cause of what people see as pressing situations enhances the significance of rhetorical study.
Vatz is authoring for Kendall-Hunt a short book in 2011-2012, "The Only Authentic Book of Persuasion," which explicates further his views on persuasion, rhetoric and situations.
Lloyd Bitzer
Lloyd BitzerLloyd Bitzer
Lloyd Bitzer is Professor Emeritus at the University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science. As a rhetorician he is best known for the concept of "the rhetorical situation." Marilyn Young has characterized him as "one of the most respected rhetoricians of the latter half of the...
began the conversation in his 1968 piece titled “The Rhetorical Situation.” Bitzer wrote that rhetorical discourse is called into existence by situation. He defined the rhetorical situation as, “A complex of persons, events, objects, and relations presenting an actual or potential exigence which can be completely or partially removed if discourse, introduced into the situation, and so constrain human decision or action as to bring about the significant modification of the exigence.” With any rhetorical discourse, a prior rhetorical situation exists. The rhetorical situation dictates the significant physical and verbal responses as well as the sorts of observations to be made. An example of this would be a President focusing on health care policy reform because it is an apparent problem. The situation, thus, calls for the President to respond with rhetorical discourse concerning this issue.
Although many situations may exist, not all situations can be defined as rhetorical situations, because speech cannot rectify the problem. Bitzer especially focuses on the sense of timing (kairos
Kairos
Kairos is an ancient Greek word meaning the right or opportune moment . The ancient Greeks had two words for time, chronos and kairos. While the former refers to chronological or sequential time, the latter signifies a time in between, a moment of indeterminate time in which something special...
) needed to speak about a situation in a way that can best remedy the exigence.
Three constituent parts make up any rhetorical situation.
- The first is the exigence, or a problem existing in the world. An exigence is not rhetorical when it cannot be changed by human interaction, such as a natural disaster or death. An exigence is rhetorical when it is capable of positive modification and when that positive modification calls for the act of persuasionPersuasionPersuasion is a form of social influence. It is the process of guiding or bringing oneself or another toward the adoption of an idea, attitude, or action by rational and symbolic means.- Methods :...
. - The second constituent part Bitzer speaks of is audienceAudienceAn audience is a group of people who participate in a show or encounter a work of art, literature , theatre, music or academics in any medium...
. Rhetorical discourse promotes change through its influence of an audience's decision and actions. A rhetorical situation requires that the members of an audience can function as mediators of change. - The third constituent part is the set of constraints. Constraints are made up of persons, events, objects, and relations that limit decisions and action. Theorists influenced by Marx would additionally discuss ideological constraints, which produce unconscious limitations for subjects in society, including the social constraints of gender, class, and race. The speaker also brings about a new set of constraints through the image of his or her personal character (ethosEthosEthos is a Greek word meaning "character" that is used to describe the guiding beliefs or ideals that characterize a community, nation, or ideology. The Greeks also used this word to refer to the power of music to influence its hearer's emotions, behaviors, and even morals. Early Greek stories of...
), the logical proofs (logosLogos' is an important term in philosophy, psychology, rhetoric and religion. Originally a word meaning "a ground", "a plea", "an opinion", "an expectation", "word," "speech," "account," "reason," it became a technical term in philosophy, beginning with Heraclitus ' is an important term in...
), and the use of emotion (pathosPathosPathos represents an appeal to the audience's emotions. Pathos is a communication technique used most often in rhetoric , and in literature, film and other narrative art....
).
Vatz's Challenge
An important response to Bitzer's theory came in 1973 from Richard E. Vatz. Vatz believes that rhetoric defines a situation. Because the context of events could be forever described, persuaders must select which events to describe. With one choosing certain events and deciding their value of importance, this creates a certain presence, or salience. Vatz’s quotes Chaim PerelmanChaim Perelman
Chaïm Perelman was a Polish-born philosopher of law, who studied, taught, and lived most of his life in Brussels. He was among the most important argumentation theorists of the twentieth century...
: “By the very fact of selecting certain elements and presenting them to the audience, their importance and pertinency to the discussion are implied. Indeed such a choice endows these elements with a presence…”
In its essence Vatz claims that the definitive elements of rhetorical efforts are the struggle to create for a chosen audience(s) saliences or agendas, and then this creation is followed by the struggle to infuse the selected situation or facts with meaning or spin. What are we persuaded to talk about? What are we persuaded it means or signifies? Not: What does the situation make us talk about and what does it intrinsically mean?
This introduces the significance of subjectivity
Subjectivity
Subjectivity refers to the subject and his or her perspective, feelings, beliefs, and desires. In philosophy, the term is usually contrasted with objectivity.-Qualia:...
in framing socio-political realities. Vatz believes that situations are created, for example, when a President uses his agenda-setting function to focus on a health care plan, therefore creating a “rhetorical situation” ( a situation determined by rhetoric). A rhetor thus holds more power by not being merely “controlled” by a situation, but by creating a situation and making it salient in language. Vatz thus emphasizes social construction in opposition to Bitzer’s realism
Philosophical realism
Contemporary philosophical realism is the belief that our reality, or some aspect of it, is ontologically independent of our conceptual schemes, linguistic practices, beliefs, etc....
or objectivism.
While the two opinions have been widely recognized, Vatz reluctantly testified that his piece is less recognized than Bitzer’s. Vatz admits, while claiming that audience acceptance is not dispositive for measuring validity or predictive for future audience acceptance, that “more articles and professionals in our field cite his situational perspective than my rhetorical perspective.” Bitzer’s objectivism is clear, and easily taught as a method, however errant it may be according to Vatz's construction, for rhetorical criticism. Vatz claims that portraying rhetoric as situationally based vitiates rhetoric as an important field; portraying rhetoric as the cause of what people see as pressing situations enhances the significance of rhetorical study.
Vatz is authoring for Kendall-Hunt a short book in 2011-2012, "The Only Authentic Book of Persuasion," which explicates further his views on persuasion, rhetoric and situations.