Redox signaling
Encyclopedia
Redox signaling is when free radicals, reactive oxygen species
(ROS), and other electronically activated species such as nitric oxide
act as biological messengers. Arguably, hydrogen sulfide
and carbon monoxide
are also redox signaling molecules. Similarly, modulation of charge-transfer processes and electronic conduction in macromolecules is also redox signaling.
likely play a key role in fibrocyte activation and thus scar formation.
In a series of papers beginning in 1941 , Szent-Gyorgyi raised the possibility that modulation of electronic processes in semiconductive macromolecules plays a key role in biological function and in diseases such as cancer. Hush reviews the history of such molecular electronics
.
Similarly, the first modern statement of the "ROS are messengers" component of redox signaling appears to be that of Proctor, who at a congress of free radical investigators in 1979 generalized the concept to suggest that " ....active oxygen metabolites act as specific intermediary transmitter substances for a variety of biological processes including inflammation, fibrosis, and possibly, neurotransmission.." and " One explanation for this data is that various active oxygen species ( or such products as hydroperoxides ) may act as specific transmitter substances....". This was formally published in a review in 1984. The next reference seems to be Bochner and coworkers.
underlies much biotic and abiotic stress signaling. For example, as signaling molecules, hydrogen peroxide and other ROS post- translationally modify target proteins by oxidizing thiol
groups
, thus forming disulfide bonds that reversibly alter protein structure and function. Specificity is achieved by localized production, concatenate hormone
or calcium signaling
, with targeted secondary oxidation occurring via glutaredoxins
or thioredoxins
. Target proteins containing reduction-oxidation (redox) sensitive thiol groups include i) signal transduction pathway proteins, such as phosphatases
and mitogen-activated protein kinases
, ii) embryogenesis regulating proteins iii) many transcription factors
, iv) RNA-binding proteins
that direct DNA methylation
, and v) proteins involved in histone
acetylation
, deacetylation or methylation
.
Similarly, the tyrosine-specific Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases
are intracellular activities lacking disulfide bonds, but they might sense intracellular redox potential through the conserved cysteine in their active sites
An intracellular oscillation of oxidant levels has been previously experimentally linked to maintenance of the rate of cell proliferation.
As an example, when chelating redox-active iron present in the endosomal/lysosomal compartment of cultured epithelial cell line HeLa with the iron chelator desferrioxamine, cell proliferation is inhibited.
Reactive oxygen species
Reactive oxygen species are chemically reactive molecules containing oxygen. Examples include oxygen ions and peroxides. Reactive oxygen species are highly reactive due to the presence of unpaired valence shell electrons....
(ROS), and other electronically activated species such as nitric oxide
Nitric oxide
Nitric oxide, also known as nitrogen monoxide, is a diatomic molecule with chemical formula NO. It is a free radical and is an important intermediate in the chemical industry...
act as biological messengers. Arguably, hydrogen sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide is the chemical compound with the formula . It is a colorless, very poisonous, flammable gas with the characteristic foul odor of expired eggs perceptible at concentrations as low as 0.00047 parts per million...
and carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide , also called carbonous oxide, is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is slightly lighter than air. It is highly toxic to humans and animals in higher quantities, although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities, and is thought to have some normal...
are also redox signaling molecules. Similarly, modulation of charge-transfer processes and electronic conduction in macromolecules is also redox signaling.
History
The concept of electronically activated species as messengers in both normal metabolism and in pathogenesis goes back to the 19th century. For example, we now know that reactive oxygen speciesReactive oxygen species
Reactive oxygen species are chemically reactive molecules containing oxygen. Examples include oxygen ions and peroxides. Reactive oxygen species are highly reactive due to the presence of unpaired valence shell electrons....
likely play a key role in fibrocyte activation and thus scar formation.
In a series of papers beginning in 1941 , Szent-Gyorgyi raised the possibility that modulation of electronic processes in semiconductive macromolecules plays a key role in biological function and in diseases such as cancer. Hush reviews the history of such molecular electronics
Molecular electronics
Molecular electronics, sometimes called moletronics, involves the study and application of molecular building blocks for the fabrication of electronic components...
.
Similarly, the first modern statement of the "ROS are messengers" component of redox signaling appears to be that of Proctor, who at a congress of free radical investigators in 1979 generalized the concept to suggest that " ....active oxygen metabolites act as specific intermediary transmitter substances for a variety of biological processes including inflammation, fibrosis, and possibly, neurotransmission.." and " One explanation for this data is that various active oxygen species ( or such products as hydroperoxides ) may act as specific transmitter substances....". This was formally published in a review in 1984. The next reference seems to be Bochner and coworkers.
Electronic Conduction in Redox Signaling
Hush credits Mcginness and coworkers with the first experimental demonstration of Szent-Gyorgyi's theories concerning semiconductor mechanisms in cellular signaling. Priel and coworkers postulate active electronic mechanisms in modulation of cellular processes by microtubules. Bettinger and Bao review recent work on biomaterial-based organic electronic devices. Such may play s role in control of cellular function.Reactive Oxygen Species as Messengers
The formation of ROS such as hydrogen peroxideHydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen peroxide is the simplest peroxide and an oxidizer. Hydrogen peroxide is a clear liquid, slightly more viscous than water. In dilute solution, it appears colorless. With its oxidizing properties, hydrogen peroxide is often used as a bleach or cleaning agent...
underlies much biotic and abiotic stress signaling. For example, as signaling molecules, hydrogen peroxide and other ROS post- translationally modify target proteins by oxidizing thiol
Thiol
In organic chemistry, a thiol is an organosulfur compound that contains a carbon-bonded sulfhydryl group...
groups
Functional group
In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of...
, thus forming disulfide bonds that reversibly alter protein structure and function. Specificity is achieved by localized production, concatenate hormone
Hormone
A hormone is a chemical released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body that sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. In essence, it is a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one...
or calcium signaling
Calcium signaling
Calcium is a common signaling mechanism, as once it enters the cytoplasm it exerts allosteric regulatory effects on many enzymes and proteins...
, with targeted secondary oxidation occurring via glutaredoxins
Glutaredoxin
Glutaredoxins are small redox enzymes of approximately one hundred amino-acid residues that use glutathione as a cofactor. Glutaredoxins are oxidized by substrates, and reduced non-enzymatically by glutathione. In contrast to thioredoxins, which are reduced by thioredoxin reductase, no...
or thioredoxins
Thioredoxin
Thioredoxin is a class of small redox proteins known to be present in all organisms. It plays a role in many important biological processes. In humans, it is encoded by the TXN gene. Loss-of-function mutation of either of the two human thioredoxin genes is lethal at the four-cell stage of the...
. Target proteins containing reduction-oxidation (redox) sensitive thiol groups include i) signal transduction pathway proteins, such as phosphatases
Phosphatase
A phosphatase is an enzyme that removes a phosphate group from its substrate by hydrolysing phosphoric acid monoesters into a phosphate ion and a molecule with a free hydroxyl group . This action is directly opposite to that of phosphorylases and kinases, which attach phosphate groups to their...
and mitogen-activated protein kinases
Mitogen-activated protein kinase
Mitogen-activated protein kinases are serine/threonine-specific protein kinases that respond to extracellular stimuli and regulate various cellular activities, such as gene expression, mitosis, differentiation, proliferation, and cell survival/apoptosis.-Activation:MAP kinases are activated...
, ii) embryogenesis regulating proteins iii) many transcription factors
Transcription factor
In molecular biology and genetics, a transcription factor is a protein that binds to specific DNA sequences, thereby controlling the flow of genetic information from DNA to mRNA...
, iv) RNA-binding proteins
RNA-binding protein
RNA-binding proteins are proteins that bind to RNA. They bind to either double-strand or single-strand RNAs through RNA recognition motif . RNA-binding proteins may regulate the translation of RNA, and post-transcriptional events, such as RNA splicing, editing.They are cytoplasmic and nuclear...
that direct DNA methylation
DNA methylation
DNA methylation is a biochemical process that is important for normal development in higher organisms. It involves the addition of a methyl group to the 5 position of the cytosine pyrimidine ring or the number 6 nitrogen of the adenine purine ring...
, and v) proteins involved in histone
Histone
In biology, histones are highly alkaline proteins found in eukaryotic cell nuclei that package and order the DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. They are the chief protein components of chromatin, acting as spools around which DNA winds, and play a role in gene regulation...
acetylation
Acetylation
Acetylation describes a reaction that introduces an acetyl functional group into a chemical compound...
, deacetylation or methylation
Methylation
In the chemical sciences, methylation denotes the addition of a methyl group to a substrate or the substitution of an atom or group by a methyl group. Methylation is a form of alkylation with, to be specific, a methyl group, rather than a larger carbon chain, replacing a hydrogen atom...
.
Similarly, the tyrosine-specific Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases
Protein tyrosine phosphatase
Protein tyrosine phosphatases are a group of enzymes that remove phosphate groups from phosphorylated tyrosine residues on proteins. Protein tyrosine phosphorylation is a common post-translational modification that can create novel recognition motifs for protein interactions and cellular...
are intracellular activities lacking disulfide bonds, but they might sense intracellular redox potential through the conserved cysteine in their active sites
An intracellular oscillation of oxidant levels has been previously experimentally linked to maintenance of the rate of cell proliferation.
As an example, when chelating redox-active iron present in the endosomal/lysosomal compartment of cultured epithelial cell line HeLa with the iron chelator desferrioxamine, cell proliferation is inhibited.