Red Shirts (South Carolina)
Encyclopedia
The Red Shirts or Redshirts of the Southern United States
were white paramilitary
groups in the 19th century, active primarily after the formal Reconstruction era of the United States. They first arose in Mississippi
in 1875, when Democratic Party
private militias adopted red shirts to make themselves more visible and threatening to Republicans
, both whites and freedmen. Similar groups formed in other Southern states also adopted Red Shirts.
Among the most prominent Red Shirts were supporters of Democratic Party candidate Wade Hampton
during the campaigns for the South Carolina gubernatorial elections of 1876
and 1878
. The Red Shirts were one of a number of paramilitary organizations, such as the White League
in Louisiana
, that arose in the continuing insurgency of white Democrats in the South in the 1870s. Such groups acted as "the military arm of the Democratic Party." While engaging in terrorism
, in contrast to secret vigilante
groups such as the Ku Klux Klan
, the Red Shirts and other paramilitary groups worked openly, were more organized and directed their efforts at political goals: to restore the Democrats to power by turning out Republicans, and repressing civil rights and voting by blacks. During the 1876 campaign, the Red Shirts of North Carolina
also played prominent roles.
in The South During Reconstruction, the red shirt was first used in Mississippi in 1875 by "southern brigadiers" opposed to black Republicans. The Red Shirts were active in disrupting Republican rallies, intimidating and assassinating black leaders, and suppressing black voting at the polls.
The first use of a red shirt in South Carolina
was in Charleston on August 25, 1876, during a torchlight parade by Democrats. They were mocking the waving of the bloody shirt
speech by Sen. Oliver Morton
in the Senate
to bolster support for Reconstruction policies of the South
. The idea spread. Those accused of the Hamburg Massacre
wore red shirts as they marched to their arraignment
in Aiken, South Carolina
on September 5. Martin Gary
, the organizer of the Democratic campaign in 1876 and Hampton's right-hand man, mandated that supporters were to wear red shirts at all rallies and functions.
Donning a red shirt became a source of pride and continued resistance for the white Democrats of South Carolina. Women sewed red flannel shirts
and other garments of red; it became fashion
able for women to wear red ribbons in their hair or about their waists. For young men, to wear a red shirt was to come of age
and compensate for their inability to have contributed to the Southern cause
of the Civil War.
organized parades and rallies in every county of South Carolina. Many of the participants were armed and on horseback, and all wore red. The use of mounted men gave the impression of greater force. At gatherings, when Wade Hampton and other Democrats spoke, the Red Shirts would respond energetically, yelling the slogan of the campaign, "Hurrah for Hampton." Such an atmosphere of chants, speeches and armed men in red on horseback created a massive spectacle that united and motivated attendees.
Red Shirts created a show of force to intimidate both white and black bystanders to vote for the Democrats or refrain from voting. The Red Shirts were one of a number of white paramilitary organizations, such as the White League in Louisiana and other Deep South states, that arose to push Republicans out and suppress African Americans' civil rights
and voting rights. They were especially active in states with African-American majorities. They broke up Republican meetings, disrupted their organizing, and intimidated or barred blacks at the polls. Many freedmen stopped voting, and a few voted for Democrats under the public pressure. The Red Shirts freely used violence and assassination for intimidation, as did other private militias. In the Piedmont
counties of Aiken
, Edgefield, Barnwell
and others, freedmen were driven from their homes and whipped, and some leaders were murdered. When it came to the 1876 election, in Edgefield and Laurens counties Democrats voted "early and often" and barred freedmen from the polls.
Armed and mounted Red Shirts accompanied Hampton on a tour of the state. They often attended Republican meetings and demanded equal time, although they did not often speak. Among the more peaceful actions, in some cases Red Shirts would hold a barbecue
a mile away in order to lure Republicans away from the gatherings and convert them to vote the Democratic ticket.
Hampton positioned himself as a statesman, promising support for education and offering protection from violence that Gov. Chamberlain did not seem able to provide. Nonetheless, only a few freedmen voted for Hampton and most remained loyal to the Republicans. The 1876 campaign was the "most tumultuous in South Carolina's history." "An anti-Reconstruction historian later estimated that 150 Negroes were murdered in South Carolina during the campaign."
After the election on November 7, a protracted dispute between Daniel Chamberlain
and Hampton ensued as both claimed victory. Because of the massive election fraud, Edmund Mackey
, a Republican member of the South Carolina House of Representatives
, called upon the "Hunkidori Club" from Charleston to eject Democratic members from Edgefield and Laurens counties from the House. Word spread through the state. By December 3, approximately 5,000 Red Shirts assembled at the State House
to defend the Democrats. Hampton appealed for calm and the Red Shirts dispersed.
As a result of a national political compromise, Pres. Rutherford B. Hayes
ordered the removal of Federal troops
from the state on April 3, 1877. The white Democrats completed their political takeover of South Carolina. In the gubernatorial election of 1878
, the Red Shirts made a nominal appearance as Hampton was re-elected without opposition.
Future South Carolina Democratic politicians such as Ben Tillman
and Ellison Smith
, proudly claimed their association with the Red Shirts as a bona fide
for white supremacy
.
and during Wilmington Insurrection of 1898
. On November 4, 1898, the Raleigh News & Observer noted that, "The first Red Shirt parade on horseback ever witnessed in Wilmington
electrified the people today. It created enthusiasm among the whites and consternation among the Negroes. The whole town turned out to see it. It was an enthusiastic body of men. Otherwise it was quiet and orderly."
The Red Shirts were part of a Democratic campaign to oppose the interracial coalition of Republicans and Populists, which had gained control of the state legislature in the 1894 election. Such biracial coalitions had also occurred in other states across the South, threatening white Democratic control of state legislatures. Upper- and middle-class white populations feared the empowerment of freedmen and poor whites.
To break up the coalition, white Democrats used intimidation to reduce black Republican voting and regain control of the legislature in 1896. They then passed laws and a new constitution disfranchising most African Americans and many poor whites. From 1896 to 1904, black voter turnout in North Carolina was reduced to zero by a combination of provisions such as poll taxes, residency requirements, literacy tests, grandfather clause
and more complicated rules for voting. This followed a pattern of similar state actions across the South, starting with Mississippi's new constitution in 1890. After a decade of white supremacy
, many people forgot that North Carolina had thriving middle-class blacks.
. At this rally one of the prominent South Carolina Red Shirts leader, Benjamin Tillman
, gave a speech that would be followed by a plethora of Red Shirt activities in the state of North Carolina. The North Carolina Red Shirts was a conglomerate of all social classes, including teachers, farmers, merchants and even some elite members of the Democratic party. From that day on much of the Red shirt activities were found in the southeastern part of North Carolina, including "New Hanover, Brunswick, Columbus, and Robeson counties" all of which geographically lie next to the South Carolina border.
Much of the beginning Red shirts activities can be seen during the initiation of the "white supremacy" movements of 1898 and 1900. The white supremacy movements of 1898 were sparked by the increase in black government officials in the state of North Carolina between the years of 1894 and 1897. This increase in black officials forced the "frightened and desperate Democratic Party" to initiate the white supremacy campaign that the Red Shirts would become integral partners in. Unlike the KKK, the Red Shirts only collaborated with the Democratic Party, and wanted the North Carolina population and non-Democrats to know their identities, and by the end of the election in 1898, they would prove to be a potent political force not to be messed with.
In addition to the Senator's concern, Gov. Daniel L. Russell (R), noted to the public that along the southern edge of the state, "armed and lawless" men had taken over due to the increase in crimes and violent activities. The Red Shirts often disrupted many non-Democratic political meeting via "threats, intimidation, and actual violence". Through their violence and intimidation, the Red Shirts successfully deterred many members of the counties from registering to vote in the 1898 state election. Due to the citizens being fearful to register to vote, Gov. Russell put out a proclamation on October 26, 1898, requesting that all "Ill-disposed persons ... to immediately desist from all unlawful practices ... Turbulent conduct, and to preserve peace." Governor Russell's proclamation did not sit well with the lawless men of the Red Shirts; therefore they increased their activity.
The week before the 1898 election, the Red Shirts activities were non-stop, and the threats were so recurrent that many Republicans
and Fusionist speakers canceled their engagements, even leading to the withdrawal of the Republican Fusion ticket in Hanover County. A few days before the election, November 2, 1898, the Morning Star newspaper of Wilmington North Carolina took note of a large rally with Red Shirt affiliate Claude Kitchin
as the fiery speaker. The rally involved one thousand men with red shirts that marched in the predominantly black areas of Richmond County for 10 miles. Their goal as the newspaper noted was "to show their determination to rid themselves of Negro rule." The intimidation tactic of the Red Shirts was quite successful for "many Negroes [had] taken their names from the registration list."
During the November 8, 1898, election Red Shirts wanted to enforce their prior intimidation tactic by riding around the voting precincts on their horses, with rifles and shotguns to deter all Republicans, Fusionists and African-American from the polls. The Red Shirts' activity helped the Democrats win with a 25,000 majority, as headlined in the News and Observer. The Election Day Democratic victory was followed by a large celebration on November 15 organized by Josephus Daniels
to commemorate "white supremacy and rescuing the state from Negro-rule."
The election of 1900 was a special election because there was one held in August and another held in November. The same Democratic platform from 1898 was resounded as in the 1900 election, with sayings such as "White Rule for TarHeels," "White Supremacy", and "No Negro Rule". The Red Shirts and Democrats would ensure their win during the August special election, which was a Democratic ploy to disfranchise the black vote. The Democrat and Red Shirts felt that if they could "demoralize black leaders" the black vote would decrease. On the day of the disfranchisement election in August, one prominent black leader, Abe Middleton, a former Republican county chairman of Duplin County, was symbolically "killed" when his wife found a "pasteboard coffin" in their garden. During a post-election hearing, Middleton testified that there was an increase in shooting near his home. Though the incidents did not faze Middleton, members of the black community saw this activity and failed to vote. The intimidation activities of the Red Shirts was so successful that many African-Americans abandoned their homes, some even seeking refugee in swamps, as accounted by Dave Kennedy, a black voter of Duplin County.
The Red Shirts not only caused much havoc in the black community, the gang of lawless men continued to attack non-Democrats with violent and destructive means. The New York Times, in an August 2, 1900, article, noted how the day before the election the Red Shirts disrupted the speech of Mr. Teague and demolished the platform on which he spoke. The deputy sheriff did not attempt to stop the Red Shirts' activity, indicating their support from Democrats, but also law enforcement officials of many counties throughout the state. Later as Teague was traveling to Dunn County during his canvassing tour of the state he was kidnapped by the Red Shirts and driven out of town. Among other prominent non-Democratic speakers, Marion Butler and others were disrupted by the throwing of rotten eggs. The increasingly disruptive activities of the Red Shirts lead the Republican chairman of Johnson County to send a request for troops to Gov. Russell.
The day of the 1900 election was no different from the 1898 election, except that there was a greater Red Shirt presence. The gang of men still rode around the voting polls with their guns and horses, intimidating blacks from voting. The success of the disfranchisement of black votes in the August 1900 election, ultimately lead to the November Democratic gubernatorial win of Aycock over Adams, the Republican. The vote 186,650 to 126,296 was noted as "the largest majority ever given to a gubernatorial candidate".
After the Democratic win in November, the Red Shirts were not to be found. Because the Red Shirts were primarily poor whites, the Democratic Party of elitist whites parted ways with the group. Thus the prevalence of Red Shirts declined upon the inauguration of Gov. Aycock.
The League of the South
members use the Red Shirt to express neo-secessionist politics. They sometimes protest the activities of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP) and the Southern Poverty Law Center
, which monitors civil rights and voting.
In 2006 a group calling itself the Red Shirts urged members to march at the South Carolina state capital to protest the NAACP and state observance of Martin Luther King Day
. In addition, they protested the campaign of Republican Bob Inglis
, who had run for election for another term despite earlier promises not to do so. Their website includes a statement of purpose taken from Jefferson Davis
' announcement of secession
in 1861.
Southern United States
The Southern United States—commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South—constitutes a large distinctive area in the southeastern and south-central United States...
were white paramilitary
Paramilitary
A paramilitary is a force whose function and organization are similar to those of a professional military, but which is not considered part of a state's formal armed forces....
groups in the 19th century, active primarily after the formal Reconstruction era of the United States. They first arose in Mississippi
Mississippi
Mississippi is a U.S. state located in the Southern United States. Jackson is the state capital and largest city. The name of the state derives from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary, whose name comes from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi...
in 1875, when Democratic Party
Democratic Party (United States)
The Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The party's socially liberal and progressive platform is largely considered center-left in the U.S. political spectrum. The party has the lengthiest record of continuous...
private militias adopted red shirts to make themselves more visible and threatening to Republicans
Republican Party (United States)
The Republican Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Democratic Party. Founded by anti-slavery expansion activists in 1854, it is often called the GOP . The party's platform generally reflects American conservatism in the U.S...
, both whites and freedmen. Similar groups formed in other Southern states also adopted Red Shirts.
Among the most prominent Red Shirts were supporters of Democratic Party candidate Wade Hampton
Wade Hampton III
Wade Hampton III was a Confederate cavalry leader during the American Civil War and afterward a politician from South Carolina, serving as its 77th Governor and as a U.S...
during the campaigns for the South Carolina gubernatorial elections of 1876
South Carolina gubernatorial election, 1876
The 1876 South Carolina gubernatorial election was held on November 7, 1876 to select the governor of the state of South Carolina. The election campaign was a referendum on the Radical Republican-led state government and their Reconstruction policies...
and 1878
South Carolina gubernatorial election, 1878
The 1878 South Carolina gubernatorial election was held on November 5, 1878 to select the governor of the state of South Carolina. Wade Hampton III was renominated by the Democrats and ran against no organized opposition in the general election to win reelection for a second two-year...
. The Red Shirts were one of a number of paramilitary organizations, such as the White League
White League
The White League was a white paramilitary group started in 1874 that operated to turn Republicans out of office and intimidate freedmen from voting and political organizing. Its first chapter in Grant Parish, Louisiana was made up of many of the Confederate veterans who had participated in the...
in Louisiana
Louisiana
Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties...
, that arose in the continuing insurgency of white Democrats in the South in the 1870s. Such groups acted as "the military arm of the Democratic Party." While engaging in terrorism
Terrorism
Terrorism is the systematic use of terror, especially as a means of coercion. In the international community, however, terrorism has no universally agreed, legally binding, criminal law definition...
, in contrast to secret vigilante
Vigilante
A vigilante is a private individual who legally or illegally punishes an alleged lawbreaker, or participates in a group which metes out extralegal punishment to an alleged lawbreaker....
groups such as the Ku Klux Klan
Ku Klux Klan
Ku Klux Klan, often abbreviated KKK and informally known as the Klan, is the name of three distinct past and present far-right organizations in the United States, which have advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically...
, the Red Shirts and other paramilitary groups worked openly, were more organized and directed their efforts at political goals: to restore the Democrats to power by turning out Republicans, and repressing civil rights and voting by blacks. During the 1876 campaign, the Red Shirts of North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
also played prominent roles.
Origins and symbolism
According to E. Merton CoulterE. Merton Coulter
Ellis Merton Coulter was an American historian of the South, author, and a founding member of the Southern Historical Association. He believed in segregation and white supremacy. For four decades, he was a professor at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia, where he was chair of the...
in The South During Reconstruction, the red shirt was first used in Mississippi in 1875 by "southern brigadiers" opposed to black Republicans. The Red Shirts were active in disrupting Republican rallies, intimidating and assassinating black leaders, and suppressing black voting at the polls.
The first use of a red shirt in South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
was in Charleston on August 25, 1876, during a torchlight parade by Democrats. They were mocking the waving of the bloody shirt
Waving the bloody shirt
In the history of the United States, "waving the bloody shirt" refers to the practice of politicians referencing the blood of martyrs or heroes to criticize opponents. In American history, the phrase gained popularity with a fictitious incident in which Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts,...
speech by Sen. Oliver Morton
Oliver Hazard Perry Morton
Oliver Hazard Perry Throck Morton , commonly known as Oliver P. Morton, was a U.S. Republican Party politician from Indiana. He served as the 14th Governor of Indiana during the American Civil War, and was a stalwart ally of President Abraham Lincoln. During the war, Morton suppressed the...
in the Senate
United States Senate
The United States Senate is the upper house of the bicameral legislature of the United States, and together with the United States House of Representatives comprises the United States Congress. The composition and powers of the Senate are established in Article One of the U.S. Constitution. Each...
to bolster support for Reconstruction policies of the South
Southern United States
The Southern United States—commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South—constitutes a large distinctive area in the southeastern and south-central United States...
. The idea spread. Those accused of the Hamburg Massacre
Hamburg Massacre
The Hamburg Massacre was a key event of South Carolina Reconstruction. Beginning with a dispute over free passage on a public road, this racially motivated incident concluded with the death of seven men...
wore red shirts as they marched to their arraignment
Arraignment
Arraignment is a formal reading of a criminal complaint in the presence of the defendant to inform the defendant of the charges against him or her. In response to arraignment, the accused is expected to enter a plea...
in Aiken, South Carolina
Aiken, South Carolina
Aiken is a city in and the county seat of Aiken County, South Carolina, United States. With Augusta, Georgia, it is one of the two largest cities of the Central Savannah River Area. It is part of the Augusta-Richmond County Metropolitan Statistical Area. Aiken is home to the University of South...
on September 5. Martin Gary
Martin Witherspoon Gary
Martin Witherspoon Gary was a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War and a Democratic politician in postbellum South Carolina.-Early life and career:...
, the organizer of the Democratic campaign in 1876 and Hampton's right-hand man, mandated that supporters were to wear red shirts at all rallies and functions.
Donning a red shirt became a source of pride and continued resistance for the white Democrats of South Carolina. Women sewed red flannel shirts
Flannel
Flannel is a soft woven fabric, of various fineness. Flannel was originally made from carded wool or worsted yarn, but is now often made from either wool, cotton, or synthetic fibre. Flannel may be brushed to create extra softness or remain unbrushed. The brushing process is a mechanical process...
and other garments of red; it became fashion
Fashion
Fashion, a general term for a currently popular style or practice, especially in clothing, foot wear, or accessories. Fashion references to anything that is the current trend in look and dress up of a person...
able for women to wear red ribbons in their hair or about their waists. For young men, to wear a red shirt was to come of age
Coming of age
Coming of age is a young person's transition from childhood to adulthood. The age at which this transition takes place varies in society, as does the nature of the transition. It can be a simple legal convention or can be part of a ritual, as practiced by many societies...
and compensate for their inability to have contributed to the Southern cause
Lost Cause of the Confederacy
The Lost Cause is the name commonly given to an American literary and intellectual movement that sought to reconcile the traditional white society of the U.S. South to the defeat of the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War of 1861–1865...
of the Civil War.
South Carolina
The state DemocratsSouth Carolina Democratic Party
The South Carolina Democratic Party is the South Carolina affiliate of the United States Democratic Party. The Democratic party thrived during the Second Party System between 1832 and the mid-1850s and was one of the causes of the collapse of the Whig Party....
organized parades and rallies in every county of South Carolina. Many of the participants were armed and on horseback, and all wore red. The use of mounted men gave the impression of greater force. At gatherings, when Wade Hampton and other Democrats spoke, the Red Shirts would respond energetically, yelling the slogan of the campaign, "Hurrah for Hampton." Such an atmosphere of chants, speeches and armed men in red on horseback created a massive spectacle that united and motivated attendees.
Red Shirts created a show of force to intimidate both white and black bystanders to vote for the Democrats or refrain from voting. The Red Shirts were one of a number of white paramilitary organizations, such as the White League in Louisiana and other Deep South states, that arose to push Republicans out and suppress African Americans' civil rights
Civil rights
Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals' freedom from unwarranted infringement by governments and private organizations, and ensure one's ability to participate in the civil and political life of the state without discrimination or repression.Civil rights include...
and voting rights. They were especially active in states with African-American majorities. They broke up Republican meetings, disrupted their organizing, and intimidated or barred blacks at the polls. Many freedmen stopped voting, and a few voted for Democrats under the public pressure. The Red Shirts freely used violence and assassination for intimidation, as did other private militias. In the Piedmont
Piedmont (United States)
The Piedmont is a plateau region located in the eastern United States between the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the main Appalachian Mountains, stretching from New Jersey in the north to central Alabama in the south. The Piedmont province is a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian division...
counties of Aiken
Aiken County, South Carolina
Aiken County is a county located in the U.S. state of South Carolina. In 2000, its population was 142,552; in 2010, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that its population had reached 160,099...
, Edgefield, Barnwell
Barnwell County, South Carolina
-History:The Barnwell District was created in 1798 from the southwestern portion of the Orangeburg District, along the Savannah River...
and others, freedmen were driven from their homes and whipped, and some leaders were murdered. When it came to the 1876 election, in Edgefield and Laurens counties Democrats voted "early and often" and barred freedmen from the polls.
Armed and mounted Red Shirts accompanied Hampton on a tour of the state. They often attended Republican meetings and demanded equal time, although they did not often speak. Among the more peaceful actions, in some cases Red Shirts would hold a barbecue
Barbecue
Barbecue or barbeque , used chiefly in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Australia is a method and apparatus for cooking meat, poultry and occasionally fish with the heat and hot smoke of a fire, smoking wood, or hot coals of...
a mile away in order to lure Republicans away from the gatherings and convert them to vote the Democratic ticket.
Hampton positioned himself as a statesman, promising support for education and offering protection from violence that Gov. Chamberlain did not seem able to provide. Nonetheless, only a few freedmen voted for Hampton and most remained loyal to the Republicans. The 1876 campaign was the "most tumultuous in South Carolina's history." "An anti-Reconstruction historian later estimated that 150 Negroes were murdered in South Carolina during the campaign."
After the election on November 7, a protracted dispute between Daniel Chamberlain
Daniel Henry Chamberlain
Daniel Henry Chamberlain was a planter, lawyer, author and the 76th Governor of South Carolina from 1874 until 1877....
and Hampton ensued as both claimed victory. Because of the massive election fraud, Edmund Mackey
Edmund William McGregor Mackey
Edmund William McGregor Mackey was a United States Representative from South Carolina. Born in Charleston, he became a representative after the end of the American Civil War. As an active Republican, he was nominated to be a delegate from Charleston for the constitutional convention of South...
, a Republican member of the South Carolina House of Representatives
South Carolina House of Representatives
The South Carolina House of Representatives is the lower house of the South Carolina General Assembly, the upper house being the South Carolina Senate. It consists of 124 Representatives elected to two year terms at the same time as US Congressional elections...
, called upon the "Hunkidori Club" from Charleston to eject Democratic members from Edgefield and Laurens counties from the House. Word spread through the state. By December 3, approximately 5,000 Red Shirts assembled at the State House
South Carolina State House
The South Carolina State House is the building housing the government of the U.S. state of South Carolina. The building houses the South Carolina General Assembly and the offices of the Governor and Lieutenant Governor of South Carolina. Until 1971, it also housed the Supreme Court...
to defend the Democrats. Hampton appealed for calm and the Red Shirts dispersed.
As a result of a national political compromise, Pres. Rutherford B. Hayes
Rutherford B. Hayes
Rutherford Birchard Hayes was the 19th President of the United States . As president, he oversaw the end of Reconstruction and the United States' entry into the Second Industrial Revolution...
ordered the removal of Federal troops
Union Army
The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War. It was also known as the Federal Army, the U.S. Army, the Northern Army and the National Army...
from the state on April 3, 1877. The white Democrats completed their political takeover of South Carolina. In the gubernatorial election of 1878
South Carolina gubernatorial election, 1878
The 1878 South Carolina gubernatorial election was held on November 5, 1878 to select the governor of the state of South Carolina. Wade Hampton III was renominated by the Democrats and ran against no organized opposition in the general election to win reelection for a second two-year...
, the Red Shirts made a nominal appearance as Hampton was re-elected without opposition.
Future South Carolina Democratic politicians such as Ben Tillman
Benjamin Tillman
Benjamin Ryan Tillman was an American politician who served as the 84th Governor of South Carolina, from 1890 to 1894, and as a United States Senator, from 1895 until his death in office. Tillman's views were a matter of national controversy.Tillman was a member of the Democratic Party...
and Ellison Smith
Ellison D. Smith
Ellison DuRant "Cotton Ed" Smith was a Democratic Party politician from the U.S. state of South Carolina. He represented South Carolina in the United States Senate from 1909 until 1944....
, proudly claimed their association with the Red Shirts as a bona fide
Bona Fide
Bona Fide is a studio album from rock band Wishbone Ash. It is the first studio album in six years and is the only studio album to feature guitarist Ben Granfelt...
for white supremacy
White supremacy
White supremacy is the belief, and promotion of the belief, that white people are superior to people of other racial backgrounds. The term is sometimes used specifically to describe a political ideology that advocates the social and political dominance by whites.White supremacy, as with racial...
.
North Carolina
Red Shirts were active in Raleigh, North CarolinaRaleigh, North Carolina
Raleigh is the capital and the second largest city in the state of North Carolina as well as the seat of Wake County. Raleigh is known as the "City of Oaks" for its many oak trees. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city's 2010 population was 403,892, over an area of , making Raleigh...
and during Wilmington Insurrection of 1898
Wilmington Insurrection of 1898
The Wilmington Insurrection of 1898, also known as the Wilmington Massacre of 1898 or the Wilmington Race Riot of 1898, occurred in Wilmington, North Carolina on November 10, 1898 and following days; it is considered a turning point in North Carolina politics following Reconstruction...
. On November 4, 1898, the Raleigh News & Observer noted that, "The first Red Shirt parade on horseback ever witnessed in Wilmington
Wilmington, North Carolina
Wilmington is a port city in and is the county seat of New Hanover County, North Carolina, United States. The population is 106,476 according to the 2010 Census, making it the eighth most populous city in the state of North Carolina...
electrified the people today. It created enthusiasm among the whites and consternation among the Negroes. The whole town turned out to see it. It was an enthusiastic body of men. Otherwise it was quiet and orderly."
The Red Shirts were part of a Democratic campaign to oppose the interracial coalition of Republicans and Populists, which had gained control of the state legislature in the 1894 election. Such biracial coalitions had also occurred in other states across the South, threatening white Democratic control of state legislatures. Upper- and middle-class white populations feared the empowerment of freedmen and poor whites.
To break up the coalition, white Democrats used intimidation to reduce black Republican voting and regain control of the legislature in 1896. They then passed laws and a new constitution disfranchising most African Americans and many poor whites. From 1896 to 1904, black voter turnout in North Carolina was reduced to zero by a combination of provisions such as poll taxes, residency requirements, literacy tests, grandfather clause
Grandfather clause
Grandfather clause is a legal term used to describe a situation in which an old rule continues to apply to some existing situations, while a new rule will apply to all future situations. It is often used as a verb: to grandfather means to grant such an exemption...
and more complicated rules for voting. This followed a pattern of similar state actions across the South, starting with Mississippi's new constitution in 1890. After a decade of white supremacy
White supremacy
White supremacy is the belief, and promotion of the belief, that white people are superior to people of other racial backgrounds. The term is sometimes used specifically to describe a political ideology that advocates the social and political dominance by whites.White supremacy, as with racial...
, many people forgot that North Carolina had thriving middle-class blacks.
Rise
Due to the feelings of political devaluation among many white Democrats in North Carolina, the Democratic party and Red Shirts made it their goal to restore full and total power. The Red Shirts made this possible by disfranchising black voters and practically eliminating the black vote in the state. Red Shirts were first spotted in North Carolina during the October 21, 1898, rally in FayettevilleFayetteville, North Carolina
Fayetteville is a city located in Cumberland County, North Carolina, United States. It is the county seat of Cumberland County, and is best known as the home of Fort Bragg, a U.S. Army post located northwest of the city....
. At this rally one of the prominent South Carolina Red Shirts leader, Benjamin Tillman
Benjamin Tillman
Benjamin Ryan Tillman was an American politician who served as the 84th Governor of South Carolina, from 1890 to 1894, and as a United States Senator, from 1895 until his death in office. Tillman's views were a matter of national controversy.Tillman was a member of the Democratic Party...
, gave a speech that would be followed by a plethora of Red Shirt activities in the state of North Carolina. The North Carolina Red Shirts was a conglomerate of all social classes, including teachers, farmers, merchants and even some elite members of the Democratic party. From that day on much of the Red shirt activities were found in the southeastern part of North Carolina, including "New Hanover, Brunswick, Columbus, and Robeson counties" all of which geographically lie next to the South Carolina border.
Much of the beginning Red shirts activities can be seen during the initiation of the "white supremacy" movements of 1898 and 1900. The white supremacy movements of 1898 were sparked by the increase in black government officials in the state of North Carolina between the years of 1894 and 1897. This increase in black officials forced the "frightened and desperate Democratic Party" to initiate the white supremacy campaign that the Red Shirts would become integral partners in. Unlike the KKK, the Red Shirts only collaborated with the Democratic Party, and wanted the North Carolina population and non-Democrats to know their identities, and by the end of the election in 1898, they would prove to be a potent political force not to be messed with.
Election of 1898
During the initial reign of Red Shirts terror, the senator of North Carolina, Sen. Jeter Pritchard (R), wrote to Pres. McKinley asking "Will you send deputy United States Marshal to preserve the peace?" The Red Shirts used the tactics of intimidation and sometimes violence to get their point across to non-Democrats not to vote. With the rise in violent and intimidating activities among the Red Shirts, both blacks and threatened whites were buying weaponry to protect themselves. It was also noted by the Senator that most of the issues stemming from Red Shirts activities could be found "in counties where colored people predominate," the primary victims of the Red Shirts' wrath.In addition to the Senator's concern, Gov. Daniel L. Russell (R), noted to the public that along the southern edge of the state, "armed and lawless" men had taken over due to the increase in crimes and violent activities. The Red Shirts often disrupted many non-Democratic political meeting via "threats, intimidation, and actual violence". Through their violence and intimidation, the Red Shirts successfully deterred many members of the counties from registering to vote in the 1898 state election. Due to the citizens being fearful to register to vote, Gov. Russell put out a proclamation on October 26, 1898, requesting that all "Ill-disposed persons ... to immediately desist from all unlawful practices ... Turbulent conduct, and to preserve peace." Governor Russell's proclamation did not sit well with the lawless men of the Red Shirts; therefore they increased their activity.
Before the election
The week before the 1898 election, the Red Shirts activities were non-stop, and the threats were so recurrent that many Republicans
Republican Party (United States)
The Republican Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Democratic Party. Founded by anti-slavery expansion activists in 1854, it is often called the GOP . The party's platform generally reflects American conservatism in the U.S...
and Fusionist speakers canceled their engagements, even leading to the withdrawal of the Republican Fusion ticket in Hanover County. A few days before the election, November 2, 1898, the Morning Star newspaper of Wilmington North Carolina took note of a large rally with Red Shirt affiliate Claude Kitchin
Claude Kitchin
Claude Kitchin was a U.S. Congressional Representative from North Carolina and floor leader of his party in the House during the 64th, 65th, and 67th Congresses....
as the fiery speaker. The rally involved one thousand men with red shirts that marched in the predominantly black areas of Richmond County for 10 miles. Their goal as the newspaper noted was "to show their determination to rid themselves of Negro rule." The intimidation tactic of the Red Shirts was quite successful for "many Negroes [had] taken their names from the registration list."
Election day
During the November 8, 1898, election Red Shirts wanted to enforce their prior intimidation tactic by riding around the voting precincts on their horses, with rifles and shotguns to deter all Republicans, Fusionists and African-American from the polls. The Red Shirts' activity helped the Democrats win with a 25,000 majority, as headlined in the News and Observer. The Election Day Democratic victory was followed by a large celebration on November 15 organized by Josephus Daniels
Josephus Daniels
Josephus Daniels was a newspaper editor and publisher from North Carolina who was appointed by United States President Woodrow Wilson to serve as Secretary of the Navy during World War I...
to commemorate "white supremacy and rescuing the state from Negro-rule."
Before the election
The election of 1900 was a special election because there was one held in August and another held in November. The same Democratic platform from 1898 was resounded as in the 1900 election, with sayings such as "White Rule for TarHeels," "White Supremacy", and "No Negro Rule". The Red Shirts and Democrats would ensure their win during the August special election, which was a Democratic ploy to disfranchise the black vote. The Democrat and Red Shirts felt that if they could "demoralize black leaders" the black vote would decrease. On the day of the disfranchisement election in August, one prominent black leader, Abe Middleton, a former Republican county chairman of Duplin County, was symbolically "killed" when his wife found a "pasteboard coffin" in their garden. During a post-election hearing, Middleton testified that there was an increase in shooting near his home. Though the incidents did not faze Middleton, members of the black community saw this activity and failed to vote. The intimidation activities of the Red Shirts was so successful that many African-Americans abandoned their homes, some even seeking refugee in swamps, as accounted by Dave Kennedy, a black voter of Duplin County.
The Red Shirts not only caused much havoc in the black community, the gang of lawless men continued to attack non-Democrats with violent and destructive means. The New York Times, in an August 2, 1900, article, noted how the day before the election the Red Shirts disrupted the speech of Mr. Teague and demolished the platform on which he spoke. The deputy sheriff did not attempt to stop the Red Shirts' activity, indicating their support from Democrats, but also law enforcement officials of many counties throughout the state. Later as Teague was traveling to Dunn County during his canvassing tour of the state he was kidnapped by the Red Shirts and driven out of town. Among other prominent non-Democratic speakers, Marion Butler and others were disrupted by the throwing of rotten eggs. The increasingly disruptive activities of the Red Shirts lead the Republican chairman of Johnson County to send a request for troops to Gov. Russell.
Election day
The day of the 1900 election was no different from the 1898 election, except that there was a greater Red Shirt presence. The gang of men still rode around the voting polls with their guns and horses, intimidating blacks from voting. The success of the disfranchisement of black votes in the August 1900 election, ultimately lead to the November Democratic gubernatorial win of Aycock over Adams, the Republican. The vote 186,650 to 126,296 was noted as "the largest majority ever given to a gubernatorial candidate".
After the Democratic win in November, the Red Shirts were not to be found. Because the Red Shirts were primarily poor whites, the Democratic Party of elitist whites parted ways with the group. Thus the prevalence of Red Shirts declined upon the inauguration of Gov. Aycock.
Contemporary Red Shirts
Some white South Carolina groups continue to use the Red Shirt as a symbol of anti-African Americanism.The League of the South
League of the South
The League of the South is a Southern nationalist organization, headquartered in Killen, Alabama, which states that its ultimate goal is "a free and independent Southern republic." The group defines the Southern United States as the states that made up the former Confederacy...
members use the Red Shirt to express neo-secessionist politics. They sometimes protest the activities of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, usually abbreviated as NAACP, is an African-American civil rights organization in the United States, formed in 1909. Its mission is "to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to...
(NAACP) and the Southern Poverty Law Center
Southern Poverty Law Center
The Southern Poverty Law Center is an American nonprofit civil rights organization noted for its legal victories against white supremacist groups; legal representation for victims of hate groups; monitoring of alleged hate groups, militias and extremist organizations; and educational programs that...
, which monitors civil rights and voting.
In 2006 a group calling itself the Red Shirts urged members to march at the South Carolina state capital to protest the NAACP and state observance of Martin Luther King Day
Martin Luther King Day
Martin Luther King, Jr. Day is a United States federal holiday marking the birthday of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. It is observed on the third Monday of January each year, which is around the time of King's birthday, January 15. The floating holiday is similar to holidays set under the Uniform...
. In addition, they protested the campaign of Republican Bob Inglis
Bob Inglis
Robert Durden "Bob" Inglis, Sr. is a former U.S. Representative for , serving from 1993 to 1999, and then again from 2005 until 2011. He is a member of the Republican Party...
, who had run for election for another term despite earlier promises not to do so. Their website includes a statement of purpose taken from Jefferson Davis
Jefferson Davis
Jefferson Finis Davis , also known as Jeff Davis, was an American statesman and leader of the Confederacy during the American Civil War, serving as President for its entire history. He was born in Kentucky to Samuel and Jane Davis...
' announcement of secession
Secession
Secession is the act of withdrawing from an organization, union, or especially a political entity. Threats of secession also can be a strategy for achieving more limited goals.-Secession theory:...
in 1861.
See also
- South Carolina gubernatorial election of 1876South Carolina gubernatorial election, 1876The 1876 South Carolina gubernatorial election was held on November 7, 1876 to select the governor of the state of South Carolina. The election campaign was a referendum on the Radical Republican-led state government and their Reconstruction policies...
- History of South CarolinaHistory of South CarolinaSouth Carolina is one of the 13 original colonies of the United States. European exploration began in 1540, but the explorers brought European diseases that decimated the local Indian population. It was founded in 1663...
- History of the Southern United StatesHistory of the Southern United StatesThe history of the Southern United States reaches back hundreds of years and includes the Mississippian people, well known for their mound building. European history in the region began in the very earliest days of the exploration and colonization of North America...
- Reconstruction era of the United States