Phenomenography
Encyclopedia
Phenomenography is a qualitative research
methodology
, within the interpretivist paradigm
, that investigates the qualitatively different ways in which people experience something or think about something (Ference Marton
, 1986). Phenomenography, an approach to educational research that appeared in publications in the early 1980s (Marton, 1981; 1986), initially emerged from an empirical
rather than theoretical or philosophical basis (Åkerlind, 2005).
Phenomenography's ontological assumptions are subjectivist: The world exists and different people construe it in different ways; and with a non-dualist viewpoint: There is only one world, one that is ours, and one that people experience in many different ways (Bowden, 2005; Marton & Booth, 1997). Phenomenography's research object has the character of knowledge; therefore the ontological assumptions also become the epistemological assumptions (Svensson, 1997), or, to put that another way, the epistemological position is represented by the ontological position (Uljens, 1996). The emphasis is on description, implying an assumption about the importance of and the need for description. The importance is related to an understanding of knowledge as a matter of meaning and similarities and differences in meaning (Svensson, 1997). Starting with a description follows from the assumption that, in the case of conceptions, these form both the results of and conditions for human activity, and clarification is dependent upon focusing on the meaning of the conceptions themselves (Svensson, 1997). The object of study is not the phenomenon
per se, but the relationships between the actors and the phenomenon (Bowden, 2005).
A phenomenographic analysis seeks a "description, analysis, and understanding of ... experiences" (Marton, 1981, p. 180). The focus is on variation: variation in both the perceptions of the phenomenon as experienced by the actor, and in the "ways of seeing something" as experienced and described by the researcher (Pang, 1999:1). This is described as phenomenography's "theory of variation" (Pang, 1999:1). Phenomenography allows the researcher to use their own experiences as data for phenomenographic analysis (Roger Säljö
, 1996; Uljens, 1996). Phenomenography aims for a collective analysis of individual experiences (Åkerlind, 2005).
Phenomenography is not phenomenology. Both phenomenography and phenomenology have human experience as its object; however, phenomenology is a philosophical method, with the philosopher engaged in investigating their own experience (Marton & Booth, 1997). Phenomenographers, on the other hand, adopt an empirical orientation, and then investigate the experience of others (Marton & Booth, 1997). The focus of interpretive phenomenology is the essence of the phenomenon, whereas the focus of phenomenography is the essence of the experiences and subsequent perceptions of the phenomenon (Hitchcock, 2006). Data collection methods typically include close interviews with a small, purposive sample with the researcher "working toward an articulation of the interviewee’s reflections on experience that is as complete as possible" (Marton & Booth, 1997:130).
A phenomenographic data analysis sorts these perceptions, which emerge from the data collected, into specific 'categories of description' (Åkerlind, 2005; Marton, 1981; 1986; Uljens, 1996). The set of categories of description is sometimes referred to as an 'outcome space'. These categories (and the underlying structure) become the phenomenographic essence of the phenomenon (Uljens, 1996). They are the primary outcomes, and the most important result of phenomenographic research (Marton, 1986). Phenomenographic categories are logically related to one another, typically by way of hierarchically inclusive relationships (Marton, 1986; Marton & Booth, 1997) although linear and branched relationships can also occur (Åkerlind, 2005). That which varies between different categories of description is known as the 'dimensions of variation'. The process of phenomenographic analysis is strongly iterative and comparative and involves the continual sorting and resorting of data and ongoing comparisons between data and the developing categories of description, as well as between the categories themselves (Åkerlind 2005).
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such...
methodology
Methodology
Methodology is generally a guideline for solving a problem, with specificcomponents such as phases, tasks, methods, techniques and tools . It can be defined also as follows:...
, within the interpretivist paradigm
Paradigm
The word paradigm has been used in science to describe distinct concepts. It comes from Greek "παράδειγμα" , "pattern, example, sample" from the verb "παραδείκνυμι" , "exhibit, represent, expose" and that from "παρά" , "beside, beyond" + "δείκνυμι" , "to show, to point out".The original Greek...
, that investigates the qualitatively different ways in which people experience something or think about something (Ference Marton
Ference Marton
Ference Marton is a Swedish educational psychologist who is best known for introducing the distinction between deep and surface approaches to learning, and developing phenomenography as a methodology for educational research...
, 1986). Phenomenography, an approach to educational research that appeared in publications in the early 1980s (Marton, 1981; 1986), initially emerged from an empirical
Empirical
The word empirical denotes information gained by means of observation or experimentation. Empirical data are data produced by an experiment or observation....
rather than theoretical or philosophical basis (Åkerlind, 2005).
Phenomenography's ontological assumptions are subjectivist: The world exists and different people construe it in different ways; and with a non-dualist viewpoint: There is only one world, one that is ours, and one that people experience in many different ways (Bowden, 2005; Marton & Booth, 1997). Phenomenography's research object has the character of knowledge; therefore the ontological assumptions also become the epistemological assumptions (Svensson, 1997), or, to put that another way, the epistemological position is represented by the ontological position (Uljens, 1996). The emphasis is on description, implying an assumption about the importance of and the need for description. The importance is related to an understanding of knowledge as a matter of meaning and similarities and differences in meaning (Svensson, 1997). Starting with a description follows from the assumption that, in the case of conceptions, these form both the results of and conditions for human activity, and clarification is dependent upon focusing on the meaning of the conceptions themselves (Svensson, 1997). The object of study is not the phenomenon
Phenomenon
A phenomenon , plural phenomena, is any observable occurrence. Phenomena are often, but not always, understood as 'appearances' or 'experiences'...
per se, but the relationships between the actors and the phenomenon (Bowden, 2005).
A phenomenographic analysis seeks a "description, analysis, and understanding of ... experiences" (Marton, 1981, p. 180). The focus is on variation: variation in both the perceptions of the phenomenon as experienced by the actor, and in the "ways of seeing something" as experienced and described by the researcher (Pang, 1999:1). This is described as phenomenography's "theory of variation" (Pang, 1999:1). Phenomenography allows the researcher to use their own experiences as data for phenomenographic analysis (Roger Säljö
Roger Säljö
Roger Säljö is a Swedish educational psychologist whose research presents a socio-cultural perspective on human learning and development. Säljö is a professor of education and educational psychology at Göteborg University and was president of the European Association for Research on Learning and...
, 1996; Uljens, 1996). Phenomenography aims for a collective analysis of individual experiences (Åkerlind, 2005).
Phenomenography is not phenomenology. Both phenomenography and phenomenology have human experience as its object; however, phenomenology is a philosophical method, with the philosopher engaged in investigating their own experience (Marton & Booth, 1997). Phenomenographers, on the other hand, adopt an empirical orientation, and then investigate the experience of others (Marton & Booth, 1997). The focus of interpretive phenomenology is the essence of the phenomenon, whereas the focus of phenomenography is the essence of the experiences and subsequent perceptions of the phenomenon (Hitchcock, 2006). Data collection methods typically include close interviews with a small, purposive sample with the researcher "working toward an articulation of the interviewee’s reflections on experience that is as complete as possible" (Marton & Booth, 1997:130).
A phenomenographic data analysis sorts these perceptions, which emerge from the data collected, into specific 'categories of description' (Åkerlind, 2005; Marton, 1981; 1986; Uljens, 1996). The set of categories of description is sometimes referred to as an 'outcome space'. These categories (and the underlying structure) become the phenomenographic essence of the phenomenon (Uljens, 1996). They are the primary outcomes, and the most important result of phenomenographic research (Marton, 1986). Phenomenographic categories are logically related to one another, typically by way of hierarchically inclusive relationships (Marton, 1986; Marton & Booth, 1997) although linear and branched relationships can also occur (Åkerlind, 2005). That which varies between different categories of description is known as the 'dimensions of variation'. The process of phenomenographic analysis is strongly iterative and comparative and involves the continual sorting and resorting of data and ongoing comparisons between data and the developing categories of description, as well as between the categories themselves (Åkerlind 2005).