Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park
Encyclopedia
Nouabal-Ndoki National Park is a national park
in the Republic of the Congo
. Established in 1993, north of Congo, it is mostly populated with elephants, apes, ranging from Western Lowland Gorilla
s to chimpanzee
s and bongo
. It is 3921.61 km² (1,514.1 sq mi) of pristine tropical rainforest
with no human habitation within it and with least habitation in the peripheral villages. The forests have a rich biodiversity of 300 bird species, plus 1,000 plant and tree species which include endangered mahoganies.
In a conference of the Ministers of Forests of Central African Forest Commission
(COMIFAC), it had been resolved to establish within the Congo basin
, the Sangha River Tri-national Protected area (STN) with a total area of encompassing the Dzanga Sangha Special Reserve (the second largest area in the world) in the Central African Republic
, which incorporates within its ambit the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the Republic of Congo (Brazzaville
) and the Lobéké National Park
in Cameroon
. The concept of creating reserved parks emerged in the 1980s with the realization that wild roaming elephants which moved freely in the entire region of the three parks needed to be protected from poachers and the logging industry.
The Nouabal-Ndoki National Park, managed by the WCS
Congo
jointly with the Ministry of Forestry, is one of the five protocols signed between them that specifies the responsibility of each partner of the protocol to ensure protection of the areas to defined international standards.
Mbelibai is a specific area within the park where the gorillas reside and visitors visit regularly to see them.
, a tributary of the Congo River
. Part of the forest is still inaccessible and remains unexplored. It is a swampy tropical forest in lowlands that are part of the Congo River drainage basin. This park, along with the other two reserved parks within the larger Sangha Reserve, is secluded from all economic activity involving roads and human interference, which has resulted in its maintenance as a pristine rain forest. The park lies within the forest area of Congo which forms 11% of the total area of the country. It has been further demarcated into protected areas, cleared areas known as Bai and Yanga, two seasonal zones for use by nomadic people, hunting areas reserved for employees, protected zones that act as prey zones for hunting, hunting zones for local community, and sacred sites.
The park has a humid climate and gets, on an average, 1250 mm (49.2 in) of rain
a year. The rainy season is August to November and the dry season is December to February. The plants include a collection of different types of mahoganies.
There are many kinds of species
living in the park. The National Geographic Society
has observed that the park may have the largest concentration of wild life per square mile than any other place in Africa. The most prominent species are primates. There are Colobus monkeys (black-and-white Colobus, red Colobus), the endangered lowland Gorillas, chimpanzees, and moustached guenon monkeys
. The park plays host to over 300 different bird
species. Some of the important species are the eagles
, hawks, owls
, scavenging vultures, and wading herons. There are also the rare African Forest Elephant
, dwarf
forest Buffalo
, leopards, bongos, and blue duikers. There are different kinds of wildlife
in the park
. Crocodiles and blood-sucking insects are also part of the forest's species. Herpetofauna
studies have been conducted in four specific areas of the park. These studies have established 20 amphibian and 14 reptile species in the southern edge of the park; of these, the frog species are Aubria masako
, Amietophrynus regularis
, Cryptothylax greshoffii
, Hyperolius balfouri
, H. brachiofasciatus, Leptopelis brevirostris
and L. calcaratus meridionalis.
Parrots are also seen in the park area. Forest elephants create space by clearing the forest for other animals to move. Horned antelopes with 12 lb (5.4 kg) tops number 100 per 1 square kilometre. According to a Pygmy
legend, a Congo based long-necked reptile, known as Mokele-mbembo killed elephants with its huge frontal horn.
Mbelibai is a specific 3 square kilometre area within the park which is particularly rich in gorillas, with 180 western lowland gorillas reported here. It also contains many monkey species, and nine of them have a population density of 50 per 1 square kilometre. The monkey species found here are the black-and–white and red Colobus, mustached and crowned guenon, grey-cheeked mangabeys and many others.
. It is home to 24 distinct types of vegetation. However, the dominant vegetation is of Gilbertiodendron dewervei (G. dewevevri in the upland region and away from water courses in large areas; mixed and swamp forests are also a feature. The forest has many “bais” meaning ”cleared areas”. Over 1000 different plant
and tree
species have been identified. G. dewevevri is a supra-annual seed crop and it is “thought that mast fruiting may have occurred to combat seed production through predator satiation.” Its characteristics are defined as “79% of its stems above 10 cm at breast height and 88% of the basal area.” These seeds are destroyed by beetles. However, they form the major food source for a large number of mammals such as rodents, duikers (cephelophus spp.), pigs
(Putamoechoerus porcus and hylochoerus meinertzhagen) , buffalo (Syncerus caffer), elephants, and particularly gorillas.
(WWF) are the Central African Republic, the Congo and the Cameroon. This organizational effort has ensured appropriate actions being implemented related to anti-poaching, research and the promotion of tourism to the rain forests. A regular feature of this effort is the meetings that are held at regular intervals of the three park-administrations, as well as the prefects of the three countries. Patrolling of the parks is carried out by regular joint patrols to ensure that poaching, smuggling of ivory
and unauthorized fishing and carriage fire arms do not happen in the reserve park. Visitors can visit the park only in a group as part of an organized tour arranged by professional wild life tour operators.
Conservation measures are supported by the German Cooperation of Technical Collaboration (GTC) in Central African Republic and Cameroon, and the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) and Wildlife Conservation Society
(WCS - New York) in the Congo. A trust fund, flush with funds, has also been created for the purpose of conservation of the parks. The National Park has also its several research projects that are financially supported by USAID-CARPE
, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
, Colombus Zoo, and the MacArthur Foundation. Consequent to extensive international support, the park is now considered not only nationally important, but also an internationally recognised conservation area of immense importance, with a very well established infrastructure, skilled personnel, and substantial economic backing.
Protection
In the past, protection technology had been limited for rangers
. However, now, they have been using detectors to catch criminals hurting the park. The rangers of Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park have a group known as 'eco-guards'. The 'eco-guards' are under the supervision of the MFEE (Ministry of Forestry Economy and the Environment). With the MFEE/eco-guards, it has been ensured that no illegal human activities take place in the park such as poaching
. Apart from the rangers, the local community of the Ba’Aka also provide their local knowledge base inputs to promote sustainable preservation and conservation of the forests in the park.
National park
A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns. Although individual nations designate their own national parks differently A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or...
in the Republic of the Congo
Republic of the Congo
The Republic of the Congo , sometimes known locally as Congo-Brazzaville, is a state in Central Africa. It is bordered by Gabon, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo , the Angolan exclave province of Cabinda, and the Gulf of Guinea.The region was dominated by...
. Established in 1993, north of Congo, it is mostly populated with elephants, apes, ranging from Western Lowland Gorilla
Western Lowland Gorilla
The western lowland gorilla is a subspecies of the western gorilla that lives in montane, primary, and secondary forests and lowland swamps in Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. It is the gorilla usually found in zoos...
s to chimpanzee
Chimpanzee
Chimpanzee, sometimes colloquially chimp, is the common name for the two extant species of ape in the genus Pan. The Congo River forms the boundary between the native habitat of the two species:...
s and bongo
Bongo (antelope)
The western or lowland bongo, Tragelaphus eurycerus eurycerus, is a herbivorous, mostly nocturnal forest ungulate and among the largest of the African forest antelope species....
. It is 3921.61 km² (1,514.1 sq mi) of pristine tropical rainforest
Tropical rainforest
A tropical rainforest is an ecosystem type that occurs roughly within the latitudes 28 degrees north or south of the equator . This ecosystem experiences high average temperatures and a significant amount of rainfall...
with no human habitation within it and with least habitation in the peripheral villages. The forests have a rich biodiversity of 300 bird species, plus 1,000 plant and tree species which include endangered mahoganies.
In a conference of the Ministers of Forests of Central African Forest Commission
Central African Forest Commission
The Central African Forest Commission is an intergovernmental organisation in Central Africa. It's goal is to manage the forests of Central Africa in a sustainable manner.The four official languages are French, English, Spanish and Portuguese....
(COMIFAC), it had been resolved to establish within the Congo basin
Congo Basin
The Congo Basin is the sedimentary basin that is the drainage of the Congo River of west equatorial Africa. The basin begins in the highlands of the East African Rift system with input from the Chambeshi River, the Uele and Ubangi Rivers in the upper reaches and the Lualaba River draining wetlands...
, the Sangha River Tri-national Protected area (STN) with a total area of encompassing the Dzanga Sangha Special Reserve (the second largest area in the world) in the Central African Republic
Central African Republic
The Central African Republic , is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It borders Chad in the north, Sudan in the north east, South Sudan in the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Republic of the Congo in the south, and Cameroon in the west. The CAR covers a land area of about ,...
, which incorporates within its ambit the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the Republic of Congo (Brazzaville
Brazzaville
-Transport:The city is home to Maya-Maya Airport and a railway station on the Congo-Ocean Railway. It is also an important river port, with ferries sailing to Kinshasa and to Bangui via Impfondo...
) and the Lobéké National Park
Lobéké National Park
Lobéké National Park is a national park of southeastern Cameroon within the Moloundou Arrondisement of East Province. Located in the Congo Basin, it is bounded on the east by the Sangha River which serves as Cameroon's international border with Central African Republic and the Republic of the Congo...
in Cameroon
Cameroon
Cameroon, officially the Republic of Cameroon , is a country in west Central Africa. It is bordered by Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Cameroon's coastline lies on the...
. The concept of creating reserved parks emerged in the 1980s with the realization that wild roaming elephants which moved freely in the entire region of the three parks needed to be protected from poachers and the logging industry.
The Nouabal-Ndoki National Park, managed by the WCS
Wildlife Conservation Society
The Wildlife Conservation Society based at the Bronx Zoo was founded in 1895 as the New York Zoological Society and currently manages some of wild places around the world, with over 500 field conservation projects in 60 countries, and 200 scientists on staff...
Congo
Republic of the Congo
The Republic of the Congo , sometimes known locally as Congo-Brazzaville, is a state in Central Africa. It is bordered by Gabon, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo , the Angolan exclave province of Cabinda, and the Gulf of Guinea.The region was dominated by...
jointly with the Ministry of Forestry, is one of the five protocols signed between them that specifies the responsibility of each partner of the protocol to ensure protection of the areas to defined international standards.
Mbelibai is a specific area within the park where the gorillas reside and visitors visit regularly to see them.
History
Plans to establish the Nouabale-Ndoki National Park were initiated in 1991 by the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) and the Government of Congo with support from USAID as a transboundary collaborative project. It also involved a progression of interaction with local, regional and national authorities. It was finally established in September 1993 covering an area of 392169 ha (969,069.8 acre) between the North-eastern Sangha Province and the north-western Likouala Province of Congo. In 1999, the timber company CIB (Congolaise Industrielle du Bois) and the local community joined hands with WCS and the Government of Congo to create an entity that would minimise the negative impacts of logging on the national park. In 2001, the park area was extended with part of a neighbouring logging concession known as the Gouloago triangle getting annexed to this park. The German logging firm surrendered its rights over 100 km² (38.6 sq mi) of the Goualougo Triangle under its lease hold to be merged with the national park, and also resolved to ban hunting. While logging operations (particularly of two species of the African Mahogony for high-grade timber) have taken place in many forest regions in the northern Congo to a limited scale, this park has been free of any such operations. This has resulted in the fact that it has been beneficial to effective preservation and growth of population of the wild life and natural habitat of the forests in the park.Geography and climate
The protected area, which is part of the Sangha River Tri-National Protected Area (STN) is drained mainly by the Sangha RiverSangha River
The Sangha River, a river in central Africa, is a tributary of the Congo River, which it joins at . Formed by the merging of the Mambéré River into the Kadéï River at Nola , the Sangha flows through the Central African Republic, along the border of Cameroon, and through the Republic of Congo.Its...
, a tributary of the Congo River
Congo River
The Congo River is a river in Africa, and is the deepest river in the world, with measured depths in excess of . It is the second largest river in the world by volume of water discharged, though it has only one-fifth the volume of the world's largest river, the Amazon...
. Part of the forest is still inaccessible and remains unexplored. It is a swampy tropical forest in lowlands that are part of the Congo River drainage basin. This park, along with the other two reserved parks within the larger Sangha Reserve, is secluded from all economic activity involving roads and human interference, which has resulted in its maintenance as a pristine rain forest. The park lies within the forest area of Congo which forms 11% of the total area of the country. It has been further demarcated into protected areas, cleared areas known as Bai and Yanga, two seasonal zones for use by nomadic people, hunting areas reserved for employees, protected zones that act as prey zones for hunting, hunting zones for local community, and sacred sites.
The park has a humid climate and gets, on an average, 1250 mm (49.2 in) of rain
Rain
Rain is liquid precipitation, as opposed to non-liquid kinds of precipitation such as snow, hail and sleet. Rain requires the presence of a thick layer of the atmosphere to have temperatures above the melting point of water near and above the Earth's surface...
a year. The rainy season is August to November and the dry season is December to February. The plants include a collection of different types of mahoganies.
Fauna
Species
In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are...
living in the park. The National Geographic Society
National Geographic Society
The National Geographic Society , headquartered in Washington, D.C. in the United States, is one of the largest non-profit scientific and educational institutions in the world. Its interests include geography, archaeology and natural science, the promotion of environmental and historical...
has observed that the park may have the largest concentration of wild life per square mile than any other place in Africa. The most prominent species are primates. There are Colobus monkeys (black-and-white Colobus, red Colobus), the endangered lowland Gorillas, chimpanzees, and moustached guenon monkeys
Moustached Guenon
The moustached guenon or moustached monkey is a species of primate in the Cercopithecidae family. It is found in Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon....
. The park plays host to over 300 different bird
Bird
Birds are feathered, winged, bipedal, endothermic , egg-laying, vertebrate animals. Around 10,000 living species and 188 families makes them the most speciose class of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from...
species. Some of the important species are the eagles
Eagles
The Eagles are an American rock band formed in Los Angeles, California in 1971 by Glenn Frey, Don Henley, Bernie Leadon, and Randy Meisner.With five number one singles, six Grammys, five American Music Awards, and six number one albums, the Eagles were one of the most successful musical acts of the...
, hawks, owls
OWLS
OWLS is a mnemonic used by general aviation airplane pilots to assess an unprepared surface for a precautionary landing.Like all mnemonics this check has become part of aviation culture and folklore.OWLS:* Obstacles* Wind direction...
, scavenging vultures, and wading herons. There are also the rare African Forest Elephant
African Forest Elephant
The African Forest Elephant is a forest dwelling elephant of the Congo Basin. Formerly considered either a synonym or a subspecies of the African Savanna Elephant , a 2010 study established that the two are distinct species...
, dwarf
Dwarfism
Dwarfism is short stature resulting from a medical condition. It is sometimes defined as an adult height of less than 4 feet 10 inches , although this definition is problematic because short stature in itself is not a disorder....
forest Buffalo
African Buffalo
The African buffalo, affalo, nyati, Mbogo or Cape buffalo is a large African bovine. It is not closely related to the slightly larger wild Asian water buffalo, but its ancestry remains unclear...
, leopards, bongos, and blue duikers. There are different kinds of wildlife
Wildlife
Wildlife includes all non-domesticated plants, animals and other organisms. Domesticating wild plant and animal species for human benefit has occurred many times all over the planet, and has a major impact on the environment, both positive and negative....
in the park
Park
A park is a protected area, in its natural or semi-natural state, or planted, and set aside for human recreation and enjoyment, or for the protection of wildlife or natural habitats. It may consist of rocks, soil, water, flora and fauna and grass areas. Many parks are legally protected by...
. Crocodiles and blood-sucking insects are also part of the forest's species. Herpetofauna
Herpetology
Herpetology is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians and reptiles...
studies have been conducted in four specific areas of the park. These studies have established 20 amphibian and 14 reptile species in the southern edge of the park; of these, the frog species are Aubria masako
Aubria masako
Aubria masako is a species of frog in the Ranidae family.It is found in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, possibly Angola, and possibly Equatorial Guinea....
, Amietophrynus regularis
Amietophrynus regularis
The African Common Toad , also known as the Square-marked Toad, African Toad, Egyptian Toad, and Reuss's Toad, is a species of toad in the Bufonidae family....
, Cryptothylax greshoffii
Cryptothylax greshoffii
Cryptothylax greshoffii is a species of frog in the Hyperoliidae family.It is found in Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and possibly Republic of the Congo....
, Hyperolius balfouri
Hyperolius balfouri
Hyperolius balfouri is a species of frog in the Hyperoliidae family.It is found in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Uganda, possibly Chad, and possibly Nigeria....
, H. brachiofasciatus, Leptopelis brevirostris
Leptopelis brevirostris
Leptopelis brevirostris is a species of frog in the Hyperoliidae family.It is found in Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, possibly the Central African Republic, and possibly the Republic of the Congo....
and L. calcaratus meridionalis.
Parrots are also seen in the park area. Forest elephants create space by clearing the forest for other animals to move. Horned antelopes with 12 lb (5.4 kg) tops number 100 per 1 square kilometre. According to a Pygmy
Pygmy
Pygmy is a term used for various ethnic groups worldwide whose average height is unusually short; anthropologists define pygmy as any group whose adult men grow to less than 150 cm in average height. A member of a slightly taller group is termed "pygmoid." The best known pygmies are the Aka,...
legend, a Congo based long-necked reptile, known as Mokele-mbembo killed elephants with its huge frontal horn.
Mbelibai is a specific 3 square kilometre area within the park which is particularly rich in gorillas, with 180 western lowland gorillas reported here. It also contains many monkey species, and nine of them have a population density of 50 per 1 square kilometre. The monkey species found here are the black-and–white and red Colobus, mustached and crowned guenon, grey-cheeked mangabeys and many others.
Flora
The trees and plants flourish within this climate. Nouable-Ndoki National Park is a very lush rainforestRainforest
Rainforests are forests characterized by high rainfall, with definitions based on a minimum normal annual rainfall of 1750-2000 mm...
. It is home to 24 distinct types of vegetation. However, the dominant vegetation is of Gilbertiodendron dewervei (G. dewevevri in the upland region and away from water courses in large areas; mixed and swamp forests are also a feature. The forest has many “bais” meaning ”cleared areas”. Over 1000 different plant
Plant
Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...
and tree
Tree
A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance. A minimum height specification at maturity is cited by some authors, varying from 3 m to...
species have been identified. G. dewevevri is a supra-annual seed crop and it is “thought that mast fruiting may have occurred to combat seed production through predator satiation.” Its characteristics are defined as “79% of its stems above 10 cm at breast height and 88% of the basal area.” These seeds are destroyed by beetles. However, they form the major food source for a large number of mammals such as rodents, duikers (cephelophus spp.), pigs
PIGS
PIGS is a four letter acronym that can stand for:* PIGS , Phosphatidylinositol glycan anchor biosynthesis, class S, a human gene* PIGS , the economies of Portugal, Italy , Greece and Spain...
(Putamoechoerus porcus and hylochoerus meinertzhagen) , buffalo (Syncerus caffer), elephants, and particularly gorillas.
Conservation measures
Conservation efforts undertaken are not limited to the Nouabale-Ndoki National Park alone but also to the two other parks of the tri region, and also the entire Sangha River Tri-national Protected Area that encompasses more than 96% of the land area. The countries who have formed the tri-national organization under a trans-boundary program through the efforts of the World Wide Fund for NatureWorld Wide Fund for Nature
The World Wide Fund for Nature is an international non-governmental organization working on issues regarding the conservation, research and restoration of the environment, formerly named the World Wildlife Fund, which remains its official name in Canada and the United States...
(WWF) are the Central African Republic, the Congo and the Cameroon. This organizational effort has ensured appropriate actions being implemented related to anti-poaching, research and the promotion of tourism to the rain forests. A regular feature of this effort is the meetings that are held at regular intervals of the three park-administrations, as well as the prefects of the three countries. Patrolling of the parks is carried out by regular joint patrols to ensure that poaching, smuggling of ivory
Ivory
Ivory is a term for dentine, which constitutes the bulk of the teeth and tusks of animals, when used as a material for art or manufacturing. Ivory has been important since ancient times for making a range of items, from ivory carvings to false teeth, fans, dominoes, joint tubes, piano keys and...
and unauthorized fishing and carriage fire arms do not happen in the reserve park. Visitors can visit the park only in a group as part of an organized tour arranged by professional wild life tour operators.
Conservation measures are supported by the German Cooperation of Technical Collaboration (GTC) in Central African Republic and Cameroon, and the World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF) and Wildlife Conservation Society
Wildlife Conservation Society
The Wildlife Conservation Society based at the Bronx Zoo was founded in 1895 as the New York Zoological Society and currently manages some of wild places around the world, with over 500 field conservation projects in 60 countries, and 200 scientists on staff...
(WCS - New York) in the Congo. A trust fund, flush with funds, has also been created for the purpose of conservation of the parks. The National Park has also its several research projects that are financially supported by USAID-CARPE
CARPE
CARPE the Central African Regional Program for the Environment is a United States Agency for International Development initiative aimed at promoting sustainable natural resource management in the Congo Basin. It aims at protecting the forest in countries such as Gabon, Cameroon and the Republic...
, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
United States Fish and Wildlife Service
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service is a federal government agency within the United States Department of the Interior dedicated to the management of fish, wildlife, and natural habitats...
, Colombus Zoo, and the MacArthur Foundation. Consequent to extensive international support, the park is now considered not only nationally important, but also an internationally recognised conservation area of immense importance, with a very well established infrastructure, skilled personnel, and substantial economic backing.
Protection
In the past, protection technology had been limited for rangers
Park ranger
A park ranger or forest ranger is a person entrusted with protecting and preserving parklands – national, state, provincial, or local parks. Different countries use different names for the position. Ranger is the favored term in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom. Within the United...
. However, now, they have been using detectors to catch criminals hurting the park. The rangers of Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park have a group known as 'eco-guards'. The 'eco-guards' are under the supervision of the MFEE (Ministry of Forestry Economy and the Environment). With the MFEE/eco-guards, it has been ensured that no illegal human activities take place in the park such as poaching
Poaching
Poaching is the illegal taking of wild plants or animals contrary to local and international conservation and wildlife management laws. Violations of hunting laws and regulations are normally punishable by law and, collectively, such violations are known as poaching.It may be illegal and in...
. Apart from the rangers, the local community of the Ba’Aka also provide their local knowledge base inputs to promote sustainable preservation and conservation of the forests in the park.
See also
- Rainforests
- African Wildlife
- Republic of the CongoRepublic of the CongoThe Republic of the Congo , sometimes known locally as Congo-Brazzaville, is a state in Central Africa. It is bordered by Gabon, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo , the Angolan exclave province of Cabinda, and the Gulf of Guinea.The region was dominated by...
- Monkeys
- Elephants
- Antelopes
- Cats