Native American Renaissance
Encyclopedia
The Native American Renaissance was a term originally coined by critic Kenneth Lincoln in his 1983 book of the same title. Lincoln’s goal was to explore the explosion in production of literary works
by Native Americans
in the decade and a half after N. Scott Momaday
had won the Pulitzer Prize
in 1969 for House Made of Dawn
. Before that time, few Native Americans had published fiction. Writers such as William Apess
, Pauline Johnson
, John Rollin Ridge
and Simon Pokagon
in the nineteenth century, and Mourning Dove
, John Milton Oskison, John Joseph Mathews, Zitkala-Sa
, Charles Eastman
and D'Arcy McNickle
in the years before WWII
were known, but they were relatively few.
Lincoln pointed out that in the late-1960s and early-1970s, a generation of Native Americans were coming of age who were the first of their tribe to receive a substantial English-language education, particularly outside of standard Indian boarding schools and in universities. Conditions for Native people
, while still very harsh, had moved beyond the survival conditions of the early half of the century. The beginnings of a project of historical revisionism
, which attempted to document—from a Native perspective—the history of the invasion and colonization of the North American continent
(and particularly the period referred to as the "Wild West)," had inspired a great deal of public interest
in Native cultures.
During this time of change, a group of Native writers emerged, both poets and novelists, who in only a few years expanded the Native American literary canon
. At the same time, the sudden increase in materials, and the setting up of Native American Studies
departments at several universities, led to the foundations of scholarly journals, such as SAIL (Studies in American Indian Literature) and Wíčazo Ša Review
, and publishing imprints such as the Native American Publishing Programme (Harper and Row
), all of which further increased the interest in new Native American voices and their chances to be published.
Writers normally considered within this movement include:
The phrase “Native American Renaissance” has been criticized on a number of points. As James Ruppert puts it, "Scholars hesitate to use the phrase because it might imply that Native writers were not producing significant work before that time, or that these writers sprang up without longstanding community and tribal roots. Indeed, if this was a rebirth, what was the original birth?". Other critics have described it as "a source of controversy", or have commented on its "vexing implications" of a comparative downgrading of the artistry of oral tradition.
Literature
Literature is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources...
by Native Americans
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
in the decade and a half after N. Scott Momaday
N. Scott Momaday
Navarre Scott Momaday is a Kiowa-Cherokee Pulitzer Prize-winning writer from Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona.-Background:...
had won the Pulitzer Prize
Pulitzer Prize
The Pulitzer Prize is a U.S. award for achievements in newspaper and online journalism, literature and musical composition. It was established by American publisher Joseph Pulitzer and is administered by Columbia University in New York City...
in 1969 for House Made of Dawn
House Made of Dawn
House Made of Dawn is a novel by N. Scott Momaday, widely credited as leading the way for the breakthrough of Native American literature into the mainstream...
. Before that time, few Native Americans had published fiction. Writers such as William Apess
William Apess
thumb|250px|William Apess' autobiographyWilliam Apess was a Native American writer, preacher, and politician of the Pequot tribe.-Early life:...
, Pauline Johnson
Pauline Johnson
Emily Pauline Johnson , commonly known as E. Pauline Johnson or just Pauline Johnson, was a Canadian writer and performer popular in the late 19th century...
, John Rollin Ridge
John Rollin Ridge
John Rollin Ridge , a member of the Cherokee Nation, is considered the first Native American novelist.-Biography:...
and Simon Pokagon
Simon Pokagon
Simon Pokagon was a member of the Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians, an author, and a Native American advocate. He was born near Bertrand in southwest Michigan and died on January 28, 1899 in Hartford, Michigan. Dubbed the “Red Man’s Longfellow” by literary fans, Pokagon was often called the...
in the nineteenth century, and Mourning Dove
Mourning Dove (author)
Mourning Dove was a Native American author and best known for her 1927 novel Cogewea the Half-Blood: A Depiction of the Great Montana Cattle Range, which tells the story of Cogewea, a mixed-blood ranch woman on the Flathead Indian Reservation. The novel is one of the first written by a Native...
, John Milton Oskison, John Joseph Mathews, Zitkala-Sa
Zitkala-Sa
Gertrude Simmons Bonnin , better known by her pen name, Zitkala-Sa , was a Yankton Dakota writer, editor, musician, teacher and political activist. She published in national magazines. With William F...
, Charles Eastman
Charles Eastman
Charles Alexander Eastman was a Native American physician, writer, national lecturer, and reformer. He was of Santee Sioux and Anglo-American ancestry...
and D'Arcy McNickle
D'Arcy McNickle
D'Arcy McNickle was a writer, Native American activist and anthropologist.-Biography:D’Arcy McNickle, an enrolled Salish Kootenai on the Flathead Indian Reservation, became one of the most prominent twentieth-century American Indian activists...
in the years before WWII
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
were known, but they were relatively few.
Lincoln pointed out that in the late-1960s and early-1970s, a generation of Native Americans were coming of age who were the first of their tribe to receive a substantial English-language education, particularly outside of standard Indian boarding schools and in universities. Conditions for Native people
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples are ethnic groups that are defined as indigenous according to one of the various definitions of the term, there is no universally accepted definition but most of which carry connotations of being the "original inhabitants" of a territory....
, while still very harsh, had moved beyond the survival conditions of the early half of the century. The beginnings of a project of historical revisionism
Historical revisionism
In historiography, historical revisionism is the reinterpretation of orthodox views on evidence, motivations, and decision-making processes surrounding a historical event...
, which attempted to document—from a Native perspective—the history of the invasion and colonization of the North American continent
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
(and particularly the period referred to as the "Wild West)," had inspired a great deal of public interest
Public interest
The public interest refers to the "common well-being" or "general welfare." The public interest is central to policy debates, politics, democracy and the nature of government itself...
in Native cultures.
During this time of change, a group of Native writers emerged, both poets and novelists, who in only a few years expanded the Native American literary canon
Canonical
Canonical is an adjective derived from canon. Canon comes from the greek word κανών kanon, "rule" or "measuring stick" , and is used in various meanings....
. At the same time, the sudden increase in materials, and the setting up of Native American Studies
Native American Studies
Native American Studies is an interdisciplinary academic field that examines the history, culture, politics, issues and contemporary experience of Native peoples in North America, or, taking a hemispheric approach, the Americas...
departments at several universities, led to the foundations of scholarly journals, such as SAIL (Studies in American Indian Literature) and Wíčazo Ša Review
Wicazo sa review
The Wíčazo Ša Review is a bi-annual interdisciplinary journal of Native American Studies. Dedicated to the mission of assisting Indigenous peoples across the Americas, the Wíčazo Ša Review compiles inquiries into the Indigenous past and its integral relationship to the present...
, and publishing imprints such as the Native American Publishing Programme (Harper and Row
HarperCollins
HarperCollins is a publishing company owned by News Corporation. It is the combination of the publishers William Collins, Sons and Co Ltd, a British company, and Harper & Row, an American company, itself the result of an earlier merger of Harper & Brothers and Row, Peterson & Company. The worldwide...
), all of which further increased the interest in new Native American voices and their chances to be published.
Writers normally considered within this movement include:
- N. Scott MomadayN. Scott MomadayNavarre Scott Momaday is a Kiowa-Cherokee Pulitzer Prize-winning writer from Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona.-Background:...
- James WelchJames Welch (poet)James Welch , was an award-winning U.S. author and poet. He received national literary awards for Fools Crow. In addition, he received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Native Writers' Circle of the Americas in 1997....
- Gerald VizenorGerald VizenorGerald Robert Vizenor is a Native American writer, and an enrolled member of the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, White Earth Reservation. One of the most prolific Native American writers, with over 30 books to his name, Vizenor also taught for many years at the University of California, Berkeley, where...
- Leslie Marmon SilkoLeslie Marmon SilkoLeslie Marmon Silko is a Native American writer of the Laguna Pueblo tribe, and one of the key figures in the second wave of what Kenneth Lincoln has called the Native American Renaissance...
- Barney Bush
- Simon J. OrtizSimon J. OrtizSimon J. Ortiz is a Native American writer of the Acoma Pueblo tribe, and one of the key figures in the second wave of what has been called the Native American Renaissance...
- nila northSunNila northSunis a Native American poet and tribal historian, one of the best-known figures in the Native American Renaissance. Her gritty, realistic poems about life both on and off the reservation have made her one of the most widely read of all Native American poets....
- Louise ErdrichLouise ErdrichKaren Louise Erdrich, known as Louise Erdrich, is an author of novels, poetry, and children's books featuring Native American heritage. She is widely acclaimed as one of the most significant writers of the second wave of what critic Kenneth Lincoln has called the Native American Renaissance...
- Joy HarjoJoy HarjoJoy Harjo is a Native American poet, musician, and author of ancestry. Known primarily as a poet, Harjo has also taught at the college level, played alto saxophone with a band called Poetic Justice, edited literary journals, and written screenplays. She is a member of the Muscogee Nation and...
- Duane NiatumDuane Niatum-Life:After his parent's divorce, his Klallam grandfather became his surrogate father.After serving in the Navy, he graduated from the University of Washington, Johns Hopkins University with a M.A., and the University of Michigan with a Ph.D...
- Paula Gunn AllenPaula Gunn AllenPaula Gunn Allen was a Native American poet, literary critic, lesbian activist, and novelist.Born Paula Marie Francis in Albuquerque, Allen grew up in Cubero, New Mexico, a Spanish-Mexican land grant village bordering the Laguna Pueblo reservation...
The phrase “Native American Renaissance” has been criticized on a number of points. As James Ruppert puts it, "Scholars hesitate to use the phrase because it might imply that Native writers were not producing significant work before that time, or that these writers sprang up without longstanding community and tribal roots. Indeed, if this was a rebirth, what was the original birth?". Other critics have described it as "a source of controversy", or have commented on its "vexing implications" of a comparative downgrading of the artistry of oral tradition.