Nancy Hopkins (scientist)
Encyclopedia
Nancy Hopkins, an American molecular biologist, is the Amgen, Inc. Professor of Biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
. She is a member of the National Academy of Sciences
, the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
. She is known for her research identifying genes required for zebrafish development, and for her earlier research on gene expression in the bacterial virus, lambda, and on mouse RNA tumor viruses. She is also known for her work promoting equality of opportunity for women scientists in academia. Hopkins received her BA and PhD from Harvard, the latter working with Professor Mark Ptashne
. With Ptashne she identified the operator sites on DNA to which the lambda repressor binds to control early gene expression
and hence the viral life cycle. As a postdoctoral fellow of Nobel Laureate James D. Watson
and Robert Pollack
at the Cold Spring Harbor Lab she worked on DNA tumor viruses and cell biology, discovering that cells whose nucleus had been removed were able to re-establish normal morphology. She joined the MIT faculty in the Center for Cancer Research in 1973 as an assistant professor and switched to work on RNA tumor viruses. She identified viral genes that determine host range and the type and severity of cancers mouse retroviruses cause, including importantly the capsid protein p30 and transcriptional elements that came to be known as enhancer
s. After a sabbatical in the lab of Nobel laureate Christiane Nusslein-Volhard
in 1989, Hopkins switched fields to develop molecular technologies for working with zebrafish. With her students Amsterdam and Gaiano and others in her lab she developed an efficient method for large-scale insertional mutagenesis
in the fish. Using this technique her lab carried out a large genetic screen
that identified and cloned 25% of the gene
s that are essential for a fertilized egg to develop into a free-swimming zebrafish larva. Among the genes identified was an unexpected class of genes which when mutated predispose fish to get cancer, and a set of genes that cause fish to develop cystic kidney and which overlap with genes that cause cystic kidney disease in humans.
The results were bold but contentious: A summary of the committee’s findings, published in 1999 and endorsed by then-MIT president Charles Vest and then-Dean of Science (now Chancellor of Berkeley) Robert Birgeneau, is credited with launching a national re-examination of equity for women scientists. It also led 9 research universities, including MIT, to form an ongoing collaboration to study and address issues of gender equity. The group, which came to be known as “The MIT-9”, includes Harvard, Stanford, Cal Tech, Princeton, U. Penn, U Michigan, Yale, and Berkeley.
On the other hand, that the members of the committee were allowed to be judge and jury over their complaints of discrimination, that arguably the only evidence of intentional discrimination the committee found was a disparate proportion of men vs women as science faculty, and that their conclusions materially benefitted the committee members has caused some to question the process and results.
when he proposed that one reason for the very small number of high-achieving women in science and engineering fields might be “intrinsic aptitude
” (specifically that the bell-curve of aptitude is flatter for men than women). Her action became public when she replied to an e-mail from Boston Globe reporter Marcella Bombardieri inquiring about Summers’ speech. Bombardieri’s report of Summers’ speech set off a national discussion of gender discrimination, academic freedom
, and human biodiversity, and contributed to Summers’ resignation as the President of Harvard.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. MIT has five schools and one college, containing a total of 32 academic departments, with a strong emphasis on scientific and technological education and research.Founded in 1861 in...
. She is a member of the National Academy of Sciences
United States National Academy of Sciences
The National Academy of Sciences is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as "advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine." As a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and...
, the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
The American Academy of Arts and Sciences is an independent policy research center that conducts multidisciplinary studies of complex and emerging problems. The Academy’s elected members are leaders in the academic disciplines, the arts, business, and public affairs.James Bowdoin, John Adams, and...
. She is known for her research identifying genes required for zebrafish development, and for her earlier research on gene expression in the bacterial virus, lambda, and on mouse RNA tumor viruses. She is also known for her work promoting equality of opportunity for women scientists in academia. Hopkins received her BA and PhD from Harvard, the latter working with Professor Mark Ptashne
Mark Ptashne
Mark Ptashne is a molecular biologist and violinist. He currently holds the Ludwig Chair of Molecular Biology at Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center in New York...
. With Ptashne she identified the operator sites on DNA to which the lambda repressor binds to control early gene expression
Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA , transfer RNA or small nuclear RNA genes, the product is a functional RNA...
and hence the viral life cycle. As a postdoctoral fellow of Nobel Laureate James D. Watson
James D. Watson
James Dewey Watson is an American molecular biologist, geneticist, and zoologist, best known as one of the co-discoverers of the structure of DNA in 1953 with Francis Crick...
and Robert Pollack
Robert Pollack (biologist)
Dr. Robert Pollack is an American biologist who studies the intersections between science and religion. He currently works at Columbia University, where he serves as the director of the university's Center for the Study of Science and Religion and lectures for its Center for Psychoanalytic Training...
at the Cold Spring Harbor Lab she worked on DNA tumor viruses and cell biology, discovering that cells whose nucleus had been removed were able to re-establish normal morphology. She joined the MIT faculty in the Center for Cancer Research in 1973 as an assistant professor and switched to work on RNA tumor viruses. She identified viral genes that determine host range and the type and severity of cancers mouse retroviruses cause, including importantly the capsid protein p30 and transcriptional elements that came to be known as enhancer
Enhancer (genetics)
In genetics, an enhancer is a short region of DNA that can be bound with proteins to enhance transcription levels of genes in a gene cluster...
s. After a sabbatical in the lab of Nobel laureate Christiane Nusslein-Volhard
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard is a German biologist who won the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 1991 and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995, together with Eric Wieschaus and Edward B...
in 1989, Hopkins switched fields to develop molecular technologies for working with zebrafish. With her students Amsterdam and Gaiano and others in her lab she developed an efficient method for large-scale insertional mutagenesis
Insertional mutagenesis
Insertional mutagenesis is mutagenesis of DNA by the insertion of one or more bases.Insertional mutations can occur naturally, mediated by virus or transposon, or can be artificially created for research purposes in the lab.- Signature tagged mutagenesis :...
in the fish. Using this technique her lab carried out a large genetic screen
Genetic screen
A genetic screen is a procedure or test to identify and select individuals who possess a phenotype of interest. A genetic screen for new genes is often referred to as forward genetics as opposed to reverse genetics, the term for identifying mutant alleles in genes that are already known...
that identified and cloned 25% of the gene
Gene
A gene is a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism. It is a name given to some stretches of DNA and RNA that code for a type of protein or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism. Living beings depend on genes, as they specify all proteins and functional RNA chains...
s that are essential for a fertilized egg to develop into a free-swimming zebrafish larva. Among the genes identified was an unexpected class of genes which when mutated predispose fish to get cancer, and a set of genes that cause fish to develop cystic kidney and which overlap with genes that cause cystic kidney disease in humans.
Hopkins' complaint over gender discrimination at MIT
During the mid-90s, Hopkins felt she and other women were systematically discriminated against at MIT. Due to her complaints to the administration, a committee was formed (with Hopkins as the chair) to investigate the issue of inequalities experienced by women professors as a result of unconscious gender bias.The results were bold but contentious: A summary of the committee’s findings, published in 1999 and endorsed by then-MIT president Charles Vest and then-Dean of Science (now Chancellor of Berkeley) Robert Birgeneau, is credited with launching a national re-examination of equity for women scientists. It also led 9 research universities, including MIT, to form an ongoing collaboration to study and address issues of gender equity. The group, which came to be known as “The MIT-9”, includes Harvard, Stanford, Cal Tech, Princeton, U. Penn, U Michigan, Yale, and Berkeley.
On the other hand, that the members of the committee were allowed to be judge and jury over their complaints of discrimination, that arguably the only evidence of intentional discrimination the committee found was a disparate proportion of men vs women as science faculty, and that their conclusions materially benefitted the committee members has caused some to question the process and results.
Hopkins and Larry Summers' resignation from Harvard
In January 2005, at an NBER meeting in Cambridge, MA on the topic of how to address the under-representation of women and minorities in science and engineering fields, Hopkins caused controversy by walking out in protest during a talk by then President of Harvard Lawrence SummersLawrence Summers
Lawrence Henry Summers is an American economist. He served as the 71st United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1999 to 2001 under President Bill Clinton. He was Director of the White House United States National Economic Council for President Barack Obama until November 2010.Summers is the...
when he proposed that one reason for the very small number of high-achieving women in science and engineering fields might be “intrinsic aptitude
Aptitude
An aptitude is an innate component of a competency to do a certain kind of work at a certain level. Aptitudes may be physical or mental...
” (specifically that the bell-curve of aptitude is flatter for men than women). Her action became public when she replied to an e-mail from Boston Globe reporter Marcella Bombardieri inquiring about Summers’ speech. Bombardieri’s report of Summers’ speech set off a national discussion of gender discrimination, academic freedom
Academic freedom
Academic freedom is the belief that the freedom of inquiry by students and faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy, and that scholars should have freedom to teach or communicate ideas or facts without being targeted for repression, job loss, or imprisonment.Academic freedom is a...
, and human biodiversity, and contributed to Summers’ resignation as the President of Harvard.
External links
- Faculty homepage at MIT
- Hopkins Lab Website
- Inaugural article for Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS)
- FNL article known as “The MIT Report on Women in Science”
- FNL article on Summers speech
- FNL article on the hiring of women faculty at MIT
- National Academy of Sciences report reviewing research on cognitive abilities of women vs men and on gender bias
- Hyde and Mertz’ article on women and mathematical ability