Lipid hypothesis
Encyclopedia
The lipid hypothesis was one of two hypotheses
(the other being the chronic endothelial injury hypothesis
) developed in the 1850s to explain the pathogenesis
of atherosclerosis
. It proposes a connection between plasma cholesterol level and the development of coronary heart disease
.
It was proposed by the German pathologist Rudolf Virchow
in 1856 and suggested that blood lipid
accumulation in arterial walls causes atherosclerosis. Since the emergence of cardiovascular disease
as a major cause of death in the Western world in the middle of the 20th century, the lipid hypothesis received greater attention. An accumulation of evidence has led to the acceptance of the lipid hypothesis as scientific fact by the medical community; however, a small but vocal minority contend that it has not yet been properly validated, and that vascular inflammatory mechanisms prevail independent of blood cholesterol levels.
could induce symptoms similar to atherosclerosis, suggesting a role for cholesterol in atherogenesis. In 1951, Duff and McMillian formulated the lipid hypothesis in its modern form in a review which appeared in the American Journal of Medicine
. One of the most well known early modern proponents that saturated fat
s and cholesterol
in the blood are the cause of heart disease was Ancel Keys
, whose first paper on the topic was published in 1953, and whose book Eat Well and Stay Well helped the issue gain popular awareness.
s and cholesterol
in the blood are a major factor in cardiovascular disease has been the focus of research seeking to prove or disprove its validity. The interpretation of this research has resulted in the general acceptance of the lipid hypothesis as scientific fact by the end of the century. While it has attracted controversy, the scientific consensus
was early on in its favor. A survey conducted in 1978 found that a large majority of researchers and practitioners were supportive of the validity of the lipid hypothesis. In this survey, 211 prominent researchers in the field were questioned about the association of the plasma cholesterol biomarker and the link of disease to diet. 90% responded with the following answers:
The National Institute of Health held a consensus development conference reviewing the scientific evidence in 1984, during which a panel of 14 experts unanimously voted "yes" on the questions of whether blood cholesterol was causal and whether reducing it would help to prevent heart disease. The panel concluded:
As of the end of the 1980s, the evidence accumulated through studies resulted in general acceptance of the lipid hypothesis and the rejection of the "cholesterol controversy", and by 2002, the lipid hypothesis was accepted by the scientific community as proven, or, as one article stated, "universally recognized as a law." Critics point out that the standard for proof in the field is placebo controlled, double blind tests and not argumentum ad populum
. A minority of the medical community still argue that the lipid hypothesis has not yet been scientifically validated as having identified a cause of heart disease.
Nowadays, the term "lipid hypothesis" is commonly used by the opponents of the scientific consensus
concerning the role of cholesterol
in atherosclerosis
and cardiovascular disease
, such as members of The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics
founded in 2003 by critic Uffe Ravnskov
.
questioning the statistical and mechanistic significance of the associations measured in the trials and the conclusions of the panel.
In the following years, studies with lipid- and cholesterol-lowering drugs such as statin
s provided further associative evidence in support of the lipid hypothesis. However, a meta-analysis of cholesterol-lowering trials found that trials that were supportive of the lipid hypothesis were cited almost six times as often as those that were not, and although there was a similar number of trials unsupportive of the hypothesis, none of them were cited after 1970, some of the supportive reviews also exclude and ignore certain trials which were less favorable to the hypothesis; this meta-analysis, considering the less-cited trials, found that mortality was not decreased by lowering cholesterol, and that the lowering of cholesterol was unlikely to prevent coronary heart disease. One proposed mechanism by which statins reduce coronary heart disease is by working as vitamin D analogues. Further studies were designed in the hope of settling the controversy. The continuing consensus regards the lipid hypothesis as proven; but disagreement still persists among groups who argue that it is based on associations and misrepresented or over-interpreted data, and has not been shown as a scientifically validated causal mechanism.
A documentary film titled Fat Head
(2009) covers, in the second half of the movie, the origin and the propagation of the lipid hypothesis. The film chronicles the claims made by the main proponents of the lipid hypothesis, how their work influenced the nutrition guidelines published by the U.S. government, and the alleged lack of scientifically valid statistical evidence for those claims.
is a mix of about 50% saturated fatty acids (palmitic acid
, stearic acid
) with 50% unsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid
, linoleic acid
), supplemented with antioxidants, beta-carotene and vitamin E. While there is convincing evidence that palmitic (but not stearic) acid contribute to an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic and linoleic acid are effective in reducing serum total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels. Palm oil has a mixed effect: While consumption of palm oil leads to a higher blood cholesterol level compared to other vegetable oils, fresh palm oil leads to a reduction of endogenous cholesterol level and a reduced risk of arterial thrombosis and atherosclerosis. A study by a group of researchers in China comparing palm
, soybean
, peanut oil
s and lard
showed that palm oil increased the levels of "good cholesterol" and reduced the levels of "bad cholesterol" in the blood. A study by Hornstra in 1990 also showed similar results. In contrast to fresh palm oil, oxidized (processed) palm oil has adverse effects on the lipid profile and contains toxic substances detrimental to health, e.g. by harming the liver.
(AD). A "lipid hypothesis of AD" has been proposed that suggests a connection between cholesterol and changes in brain lipids found in Alzheimer-type neuropathology.
" postulates that lipids involved in causing heart disease also contribute to causing osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is characterized by a decrease of bone marrow
cells, or osteoblast
s, and an increase of fat cells, or adipocyte
s. The formation of osteoblasts from preosteoblasts is reduced by oxidized lipids and in mice fed with a high fat diet. Observations from this model suggest that LDL oxidation products can cause osteoporosis through changing the developmental fate of bone cells leading to a reduced number of osteoblasts and increased numbers of fat cells.
s and microbes, changes in the lipid composition of cell membrane
s have been linked to cold tolerance. The enhanced resistance to cold treatment appears to be caused by an increased amount of fatty acid desaturases produced under cold stress transforming saturated into unsaturated fatty acids in the membrane. This effect can be reproduced artificially in genetically engineered plants. The changes in membrane lipid composition lead to a higher membrane fluidity, thus keeping the membrane from "freezing" at low temperatures. This "lipid hypothesis of cold tolerance" is less well supported in animals. In fruit flies
, cold acclimation does not coincide with a reduced amount of saturated fatty acids, and recent genetic studies on a nematode
indicate that the mechanisms involved in cold adaptation in animals may be different from those in plants and microbes.
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. The term derives from the Greek, ὑποτιθέναι – hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose". For a hypothesis to be put forward as a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it...
(the other being the chronic endothelial injury hypothesis
Chronic endothelial injury hypothesis
The chronic endothelial injury hypothesis is one of two major mechanisms postulated to explain the underlying cause of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease , the other being the lipid hypothesis. Although an ongoing debate involving connection between dietary lipids and CHD sometimes...
) developed in the 1850s to explain the pathogenesis
Pathogenesis
The pathogenesis of a disease is the mechanism by which the disease is caused. The term can also be used to describe the origin and development of the disease and whether it is acute, chronic or recurrent...
of atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is a condition in which an artery wall thickens as a result of the accumulation of fatty materials such as cholesterol...
. It proposes a connection between plasma cholesterol level and the development of coronary heart disease
Coronary heart disease
Coronary artery disease is the end result of the accumulation of atheromatous plaques within the walls of the coronary arteries that supply the myocardium with oxygen and nutrients. It is sometimes also called coronary heart disease...
.
It was proposed by the German pathologist Rudolf Virchow
Rudolf Virchow
Rudolph Carl Virchow was a German doctor, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist and politician, known for his advancement of public health...
in 1856 and suggested that blood lipid
Lipid
Lipids constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others...
accumulation in arterial walls causes atherosclerosis. Since the emergence of cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease
Heart disease or cardiovascular disease are the class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels . While the term technically refers to any disease that affects the cardiovascular system , it is usually used to refer to those related to atherosclerosis...
as a major cause of death in the Western world in the middle of the 20th century, the lipid hypothesis received greater attention. An accumulation of evidence has led to the acceptance of the lipid hypothesis as scientific fact by the medical community; however, a small but vocal minority contend that it has not yet been properly validated, and that vascular inflammatory mechanisms prevail independent of blood cholesterol levels.
Early studies and origin
In 1913, a study by Nikolai Anitschkow showed that feeding rabbits cholesterolCholesterol
Cholesterol is a complex isoprenoid. Specifically, it is a waxy steroid of fat that is produced in the liver or intestines. It is used to produce hormones and cell membranes and is transported in the blood plasma of all mammals. It is an essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes...
could induce symptoms similar to atherosclerosis, suggesting a role for cholesterol in atherogenesis. In 1951, Duff and McMillian formulated the lipid hypothesis in its modern form in a review which appeared in the American Journal of Medicine
American Journal of Medicine
The American Journal of Medicine is the official medical journal of the Association of Professors of Medicine, publishing original clinical research in internal medicine of interest to physicians in academia and in community based practice...
. One of the most well known early modern proponents that saturated fat
Saturated fat
Saturated fat is fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between the individual carbon atoms of the fatty acid chain. That is, the chain of carbon atoms is fully "saturated" with hydrogen atoms...
s and cholesterol
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a complex isoprenoid. Specifically, it is a waxy steroid of fat that is produced in the liver or intestines. It is used to produce hormones and cell membranes and is transported in the blood plasma of all mammals. It is an essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes...
in the blood are the cause of heart disease was Ancel Keys
Ancel Keys
Ancel Benjamin Keys was an American scientist who studied the influence of diet on health. In particular, he hypothesized that different kinds of dietary fat had different effects on health....
, whose first paper on the topic was published in 1953, and whose book Eat Well and Stay Well helped the issue gain popular awareness.
Scientific consensus
Since the middle of the 20th century, the lipid hypothesis proposing that saturated fatSaturated fat
Saturated fat is fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between the individual carbon atoms of the fatty acid chain. That is, the chain of carbon atoms is fully "saturated" with hydrogen atoms...
s and cholesterol
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a complex isoprenoid. Specifically, it is a waxy steroid of fat that is produced in the liver or intestines. It is used to produce hormones and cell membranes and is transported in the blood plasma of all mammals. It is an essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes...
in the blood are a major factor in cardiovascular disease has been the focus of research seeking to prove or disprove its validity. The interpretation of this research has resulted in the general acceptance of the lipid hypothesis as scientific fact by the end of the century. While it has attracted controversy, the scientific consensus
Scientific consensus
Scientific consensus is the collective judgment, position, and opinion of the community of scientists in a particular field of study. Consensus implies general agreement, though not necessarily unanimity. Scientific consensus is not by itself a scientific argument, and it is not part of the...
was early on in its favor. A survey conducted in 1978 found that a large majority of researchers and practitioners were supportive of the validity of the lipid hypothesis. In this survey, 211 prominent researchers in the field were questioned about the association of the plasma cholesterol biomarker and the link of disease to diet. 90% responded with the following answers:
| Question | Yes | No | Uncertain |
|---|---|---|---|
| Do you think there is a connection between plasma cholesterol level and the development of coronary heart disease? | 189 | 2 | 2 |
| Do you think that our knowledge about diet and coronary heart disease is sufficient to recommend a moderate change in the diet for the population of an affluent society? | 176 | 16 | 1 |
The National Institute of Health held a consensus development conference reviewing the scientific evidence in 1984, during which a panel of 14 experts unanimously voted "yes" on the questions of whether blood cholesterol was causal and whether reducing it would help to prevent heart disease. The panel concluded:
As of the end of the 1980s, the evidence accumulated through studies resulted in general acceptance of the lipid hypothesis and the rejection of the "cholesterol controversy", and by 2002, the lipid hypothesis was accepted by the scientific community as proven, or, as one article stated, "universally recognized as a law." Critics point out that the standard for proof in the field is placebo controlled, double blind tests and not argumentum ad populum
Argumentum ad populum
In logic, an argumentum ad populum is a fallacious argument that concludes a proposition to be true because many or most people believe it; which alleges: "If many believe so, it is so."...
. A minority of the medical community still argue that the lipid hypothesis has not yet been scientifically validated as having identified a cause of heart disease.
Nowadays, the term "lipid hypothesis" is commonly used by the opponents of the scientific consensus
Scientific consensus
Scientific consensus is the collective judgment, position, and opinion of the community of scientists in a particular field of study. Consensus implies general agreement, though not necessarily unanimity. Scientific consensus is not by itself a scientific argument, and it is not part of the...
concerning the role of cholesterol
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is a complex isoprenoid. Specifically, it is a waxy steroid of fat that is produced in the liver or intestines. It is used to produce hormones and cell membranes and is transported in the blood plasma of all mammals. It is an essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes...
in atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is a condition in which an artery wall thickens as a result of the accumulation of fatty materials such as cholesterol...
and cardiovascular disease
Cardiovascular disease
Heart disease or cardiovascular disease are the class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels . While the term technically refers to any disease that affects the cardiovascular system , it is usually used to refer to those related to atherosclerosis...
, such as members of The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics
The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics
The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics is a group of scientists, physicians, and other academicians from around the world who dispute the widely accepted lipid hypothesis of atherosclerosis...
founded in 2003 by critic Uffe Ravnskov
Uffe Ravnskov
Uffe Ravnskov is a Danish independent researcher, a member of various international scientific organisations, and a former private medical practitioner in Sweden...
.
Cholesterol controversy of atherogenesis
During the 1970s and 1980s, some researchers and practitioners considered the lipid hypothesis as unverified due to the lack of proof at that time that lowering blood cholesterol levels resulted in decreased risk for atherosclerosis. Some skeptics were questioning its validity by arguing that the studies supporting it were flawed. This discussion is also referred to as the "cholesterol controversy." Predictions were made at the time that further research during the 1980s and 1990s would help settle this controversy. However, even after the Coronary Primary Prevention Trial and the NIH Consensus Conference in the mid 1980s, criticism persisted in a minority of the scientific communityScientific community
The scientific community consists of the total body of scientists, its relationships and interactions. It is normally divided into "sub-communities" each working on a particular field within science. Objectivity is expected to be achieved by the scientific method...
questioning the statistical and mechanistic significance of the associations measured in the trials and the conclusions of the panel.
In the following years, studies with lipid- and cholesterol-lowering drugs such as statin
Statin
Statins are a class of drugs used to lower cholesterol levels by inhibiting the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, which plays a central role in the production of cholesterol in the liver. Increased cholesterol levels have been associated with cardiovascular diseases, and statins are therefore used in the...
s provided further associative evidence in support of the lipid hypothesis. However, a meta-analysis of cholesterol-lowering trials found that trials that were supportive of the lipid hypothesis were cited almost six times as often as those that were not, and although there was a similar number of trials unsupportive of the hypothesis, none of them were cited after 1970, some of the supportive reviews also exclude and ignore certain trials which were less favorable to the hypothesis; this meta-analysis, considering the less-cited trials, found that mortality was not decreased by lowering cholesterol, and that the lowering of cholesterol was unlikely to prevent coronary heart disease. One proposed mechanism by which statins reduce coronary heart disease is by working as vitamin D analogues. Further studies were designed in the hope of settling the controversy. The continuing consensus regards the lipid hypothesis as proven; but disagreement still persists among groups who argue that it is based on associations and misrepresented or over-interpreted data, and has not been shown as a scientifically validated causal mechanism.
A documentary film titled Fat Head
Fat Head (documentary)
Fat Head is a 2009 American documentary film directed by and starring Tom Naughton. The film seeks to refute both the documentary SuperSize Me, a Sundance Film Festival award-winning film, and the lipid hypothesis, a bedrock of nutritional science for decades in the United States and much of the...
(2009) covers, in the second half of the movie, the origin and the propagation of the lipid hypothesis. The film chronicles the claims made by the main proponents of the lipid hypothesis, how their work influenced the nutrition guidelines published by the U.S. government, and the alleged lack of scientifically valid statistical evidence for those claims.
Palm oil and blood cholesterol controversy
Palm oilPalm oil
Palm oil, coconut oil and palm kernel oil are edible plant oils derived from the fruits of palm trees. Palm oil is extracted from the pulp of the fruit of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis; palm kernel oil is derived from the kernel of the oil palm and coconut oil is derived from the kernel of the...
is a mix of about 50% saturated fatty acids (palmitic acid
Palmitic acid
Palmitic acid, or hexadecanoic acid in IUPAC nomenclature, is one of the most common saturated fatty acids found in animals and plants. Its molecular formula is CH314CO2H. As its name indicates, it is a major component of the oil from palm trees . Palmitate is a term for the salts and esters of...
, stearic acid
Stearic acid
Stearic acid is the saturated fatty acid with an 18 carbon chain and has the IUPAC name octadecanoic acid. It is a waxy solid, and its chemical formula is CH316CO2H. Its name comes from the Greek word στέαρ "stéatos", which means tallow. The salts and esters of stearic acid are called stearates...
) with 50% unsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid
Oleic acid
Oleic acid is a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid found in various animal and vegetable fats. It has the formula CH37CH=CH7COOH. It is an odorless, colourless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The trans isomer of oleic acid is called elaidic acid...
, linoleic acid
Linoleic acid
Linoleic acid is an unsaturated n-6 fatty acid. It is a colorless liquid at room temperature. In physiological literature, it has a lipid number of 18:2...
), supplemented with antioxidants, beta-carotene and vitamin E. While there is convincing evidence that palmitic (but not stearic) acid contribute to an increased risk of developing cardiovascular diseases, unsaturated fatty acids such as oleic and linoleic acid are effective in reducing serum total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels. Palm oil has a mixed effect: While consumption of palm oil leads to a higher blood cholesterol level compared to other vegetable oils, fresh palm oil leads to a reduction of endogenous cholesterol level and a reduced risk of arterial thrombosis and atherosclerosis. A study by a group of researchers in China comparing palm
Palm oil
Palm oil, coconut oil and palm kernel oil are edible plant oils derived from the fruits of palm trees. Palm oil is extracted from the pulp of the fruit of the oil palm Elaeis guineensis; palm kernel oil is derived from the kernel of the oil palm and coconut oil is derived from the kernel of the...
, soybean
Soybean oil
Soybean oil is a vegetable oil extracted from the seeds of the soybean . It is one of the most widely consumed cooking oils. As a drying oil, processed soybean oil is also used as a base for printing inks and oil paints...
, peanut oil
Peanut oil
Peanut oil is an organic material oil derived from peanuts, noted to have the aroma and taste of its parent legume....
s and lard
Lard
Lard is pig fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms. Lard was commonly used in many cuisines as a cooking fat or shortening, or as a spread similar to butter. Its use in contemporary cuisine has diminished because of health concerns posed by its saturated-fat content and its often negative...
showed that palm oil increased the levels of "good cholesterol" and reduced the levels of "bad cholesterol" in the blood. A study by Hornstra in 1990 also showed similar results. In contrast to fresh palm oil, oxidized (processed) palm oil has adverse effects on the lipid profile and contains toxic substances detrimental to health, e.g. by harming the liver.
Alzheimer's lipid hypothesis and cholesterol controversy
A new "cholesterol controversy" is emerging out of the research of the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's diseaseAlzheimer's disease
Alzheimer's disease also known in medical literature as Alzheimer disease is the most common form of dementia. There is no cure for the disease, which worsens as it progresses, and eventually leads to death...
(AD). A "lipid hypothesis of AD" has been proposed that suggests a connection between cholesterol and changes in brain lipids found in Alzheimer-type neuropathology.
Lipid hypothesis of osteoporosis
The "lipid hypothesis of osteoporosisOsteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease of bones that leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis the bone mineral density is reduced, bone microarchitecture is deteriorating, and the amount and variety of proteins in bone is altered...
" postulates that lipids involved in causing heart disease also contribute to causing osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is characterized by a decrease of bone marrow
Bone marrow
Bone marrow is the flexible tissue found in the interior of bones. In humans, bone marrow in large bones produces new blood cells. On average, bone marrow constitutes 4% of the total body mass of humans; in adults weighing 65 kg , bone marrow accounts for approximately 2.6 kg...
cells, or osteoblast
Osteoblast
Osteoblasts are mononucleate cells that are responsible for bone formation; in essence, osteoblasts are specialized fibroblasts that in addition to fibroblastic products, express bone sialoprotein and osteocalcin.Osteoblasts produce a matrix of osteoid, which is composed mainly of Type I collagen...
s, and an increase of fat cells, or adipocyte
Adipocyte
However, in some reports and textbooks, the number of fat cell increased in childhood and adolescence. The total number is constant in both obese and lean adult...
s. The formation of osteoblasts from preosteoblasts is reduced by oxidized lipids and in mice fed with a high fat diet. Observations from this model suggest that LDL oxidation products can cause osteoporosis through changing the developmental fate of bone cells leading to a reduced number of osteoblasts and increased numbers of fat cells.
Lipid hypothesis of cold tolerance
In plantPlant
Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Precise definitions of the kingdom vary, but as the term is used here, plants include familiar organisms such as trees, flowers, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The group is also called green plants or...
s and microbes, changes in the lipid composition of cell membrane
Cell membrane
The cell membrane or plasma membrane is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells. It basically protects the cell...
s have been linked to cold tolerance. The enhanced resistance to cold treatment appears to be caused by an increased amount of fatty acid desaturases produced under cold stress transforming saturated into unsaturated fatty acids in the membrane. This effect can be reproduced artificially in genetically engineered plants. The changes in membrane lipid composition lead to a higher membrane fluidity, thus keeping the membrane from "freezing" at low temperatures. This "lipid hypothesis of cold tolerance" is less well supported in animals. In fruit flies
Drosophila
Drosophila is a genus of small flies, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called "fruit flies" or more appropriately pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many species to linger around overripe or rotting fruit...
, cold acclimation does not coincide with a reduced amount of saturated fatty acids, and recent genetic studies on a nematode
Nematode
The nematodes or roundworms are the most diverse phylum of pseudocoelomates, and one of the most diverse of all animals. Nematode species are very difficult to distinguish; over 28,000 have been described, of which over 16,000 are parasitic. It has been estimated that the total number of nematode...
indicate that the mechanisms involved in cold adaptation in animals may be different from those in plants and microbes.
See also
- AtherosclerosisAtherosclerosisAtherosclerosis is a condition in which an artery wall thickens as a result of the accumulation of fatty materials such as cholesterol...
- CholesterolCholesterolCholesterol is a complex isoprenoid. Specifically, it is a waxy steroid of fat that is produced in the liver or intestines. It is used to produce hormones and cell membranes and is transported in the blood plasma of all mammals. It is an essential structural component of mammalian cell membranes...
- HypercholesterolemiaHypercholesterolemiaHypercholesterolemia is the presence of high levels of cholesterol in the blood. It is not a disease but a metabolic derangement that can be caused by many diseases, notably cardiovascular disease...
- Blood lipidsBlood lipidsBlood lipids are lipids in the blood, either free or bound to other molecules. They are mostly transported in a protein capsule, and the density of the lipids and type of protein determines the fate of the particle and its influence on metabolism. The concentration of blood lipids depends on...
- The International Network of Cholesterol SkepticsThe International Network of Cholesterol SkepticsThe International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics is a group of scientists, physicians, and other academicians from around the world who dispute the widely accepted lipid hypothesis of atherosclerosis...
- Medical research related to low-carbohydrate dietsMedical research related to low-carbohydrate dietsLow-carbohydrate diets became a major weight loss and health maintenance trend during the late 1990s and early 2000s. While their popularity has waned recently from its peak, they remain popular. This diet trend has stirred major controversies in the medical and nutritional sciences communities...
External links
- A 5-part history of the lipid hypothesis and the "cholesterol controversy" by Daniel Steinberg, published in the Journal of Lipid ResearchJournal of Lipid ResearchThe Journal of Lipid Research is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that was established in 1959. Since 2000, it is published by the American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. It covers research in: "...the science of lipids in health and disease. The Journal emphasizes lipid...
in 2004–2006. These are condensed from his The Cholesterol Wars. Academic Press, 2007. ISBN 0-12373-979-9.