Kumi Odori
Encyclopedia
, meaning "combination dance" or "ensemble dance" in both the Okinawan
and Japanese language
s, is a form of narrative traditional Ryukyuan dance.
Originating in the Okinawan capital of Shuri, Okinawa in 1719, the original purpose of this dance was to provide amusement and diversions, which were termed ukwanshin, for the Chinese diplomats who traveled to Okinawa. Tamagusuku Chokun, a Ryūkyū courtier who lived from 1684–1734, is credited with the establishment of kumi odori as a frequently presented court demonstration. An amalgamation of several different types of East Asian dance, the kumi odori has continued to hold a place in Okinawan culture, and is now recognized by the Japanese government as an Important Intangible Cultural Property
. In 2010 it was inscribed on the UNESCO
Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
. It remains today a prime example of native art sustained by the people of Okinawa.
is composed of more than 140 islands, 40 of which inhabited, that lie beneath the southernmost Japanese main islands. A point of contention throughout the years, ownership of Okinawa was often disputed by major powers. The island of Okinawa was first ruled by warlords, called either aji or anji, and was unified under the rule of Sho Hashi
in the early fifteenth century (Smits 90). Eventually Okinawa conquered the other Ryukyu islands, expanding its small kingdom. Trade was booming in East Asia in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries and Okinawa’s position as a middleman helped foster relationships with Japan and China
. Once trade diminished, Ryukyu faced the threat of invasion by Japan. In 1609, the Satsuma domain took control of the Kingdom of Ryukyu in order to take advantage of its connections with China, but ruled only indirectly until the 1870s (Smits 91). Coincidentally, this actually served to promote Chinese culture. The ambiguity of Ryukyu’s political status while under Japanese control was a debate that concerned most of the elite. Even though it was under Japanese domination and its leaders were aware of this, it maintained its autonomy until 1879 (Smits 107). By this time, the Ryukyu began to come under more formal Japanese control, with the Meiji Restoration
in 1868 it was made a prefecture of Japan, and then it was occupied by the United States from 1945-1972. In 1972 it was finally returned to Japan as a result of gradually increasing Japanese control.
Kumi odori was born out of the necessity of diplomatic acts. In 1372, King Satto of Chozan consented to follow the tribute system with China and, as part of this system, Chinese envoys settled in Okinawa for approximately six months out of the year whenever the succession of a new king needed to be confirmed by the Chinese emperor (Foley 2). It was essential that these important visitors be entertained, so kumi odori was developed in 1719 by the odori bugyo, or minister of dance, Tamagusuku Chokun. Appointed to the position in 1715, his main responsibility was to commission entertainment for the lavish banquets held for the visiting emissaries. He had previously made five trips to Japan, stopping in both Satsuma and Edo
(today's Tokyo
). While there, he studied all the fine arts, gaining knowledge of kyogen
, kabuki
and Noh
, which greatly influenced his work (Foley 3). He was inspired by the Chinese arts as well, and at this time Chinese literature, Confucianism, and even the sanshin
, an instrument later adapted for kumi odori performances, had been absorbed into Okinawan culture (Foley 2). Kumi odori was staged for the first time at the Choyo banquet in spring of 1719: Shushin kaneiri (Possessed by Love, She Takes Possession of the Temple Bell) and Nido tekiuchi (The Children’s Revenge), which were Chokun’s first works, were performed by male aristocrats and remain a major part of the repertory to this day. With the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate
and the rise of Meiji Rule in 1868, kumi odori was all but forgotten. The aristocrats who previously enjoyed the luxuries of time and money that allowed them to study court dance were now scarce in number but, through a few notable figures, it was passed down through the generations and performed for the general population. Even the common people now had the chance to enter the schools and become performers (Thornbury 233). After the American occupation of Okinawa came to an end and Okinawa was ceded back to Japan in 1972, there was a revival of sorts of all the indigenous art forms. The Japanese support of local Okinawan arts is a source of much debate. Although Okinawan culture was suppressed by the Japanese government during the war, but the On May 15, 1972 kumi odori was proclaimed a nationally important intangible cultural property
, or kuni no juyo mukei bunkazai, under the Cultural Properties Protection Law, or Bunkazai Hogoho. Kumi odori was the fifth performing art to be selected as such, joining gagaku (ancient court music), bunraku (puppet theatre), no, and kabuki (other traditional Japanese dances) as corporate entities. After its inception, gidayu bushi, tokiwazu bushi, itchu bushi, kato bushi, miyazono bushi, and ogie bushi- all musical or narrative arts- would join them in this esteemed category (Thornbury 233-234). After a decade of petitioning for an arts complex to house the prefecture’s native arts, the National Theatre Okinawa http://www.nt-okinawa.or.jp/en/ was built in Urasoe-shi, near the city of Naha in 2004. The reasons for this are not entirely clear, but despite government funding shortages, the officials in Tokyo agreed to support the project. Not only does the theatre attach importance to the city of Okinawa, but it is also a tourist attraction, which gives a more rational basis for their support (Thornbury 243).
The movements of the kumi odori are very slow and deliberate. There are no shows of bravura nor are there any obvious feats of difficulty, rather the complexity of the steps lies in its restrained simplicity (Foley 6). Highly stylized, its characteristic gliding walk is said to be one of the hardest steps to master. In classical ballet, it is said that it is more difficult to truly master bourrees (tiny connected steps en pointe which travel across the floor) than it is to complete multiple pirouettes, although the latter may look more impressive, and the same notion applies here. Generally speaking, the easier a step may seem, the harder it is to perfect. There are three levels of odori (dance): realistic actions, emotional actions, and dances within a dance. The characteristic walk discussed earlier would be an example of a realistic action, meant to tell a story. The addition of dance steps to these actions would comprise the second level, and the inclusion of travel dances, or michiyuki, within the storyline would fulfill the third (Foley 7). This is common in many forms of dance, especially in the classical ballet. Often, the main storyline will be subverted by peasant dances or divertissements provided purely for the dance itself, rather than substantially promoting the storyline. Although kumi odori shows greats parallels to the no style of performance, there are also several characteristics that provide distinction between the two. Both feature sparse settings, eliminating the need for elaborate backdrops or scenery. Similar material, structure, and quality of performance echo in both. However, where no deals with Buddhist thought, kumi odori leans toward Confucianism, choosing to promote moderation rather than enlightenment. Where no performers would typically wear a mask, kumi odori performers express their characters through makeup and other means (Foley 3-4). Facial expressions are understated and emotion is displayed through the movements of the head or the cast of the eyes (Foley 7). The eyes always lead the head, and just as in classical ballet, the eyes arrive first and the rest of the body follows. Such careful attention to detail gives a refined and controlled action life, without which the art would cease to give the desired impression.
There are two qualities that define a good kumi odori performance: kan and konashi. Kan is similar to the idea of innate stage presence, something that cannot be learned. Konashi, on the other hand, is the culmination of the skills acquired through years of experience. All performers must have both characteristics in order for a performance to be deemed good. The idea of hin, or innate grace, is also important (Foley 11). This does not come immediately and can only be achieved after years of hard work and dedication. It is said that one cannot be a good performer of kumi odori, no or kabuki, until at least fifty, which is quite the opposite of the baby ballerinas favored by many in western dance. Perhaps most importantly, while no focuses on past events, the kumi odori style focuses on present action (Foley 4). Kabuki and no both lack the heavy emphasis on music that is so important to kumi odori.
, who was a famous performer in the last ukwanshin in 1866. Noho Miyagi (宮城能鳳) is the other notable kumi odori performer and dancer of the twentieth century. After studying under Genzo Tamagusuku, he taught at the Okinawa Geino Daigaku (University of the Arts), providing his students with the skills necessary to perform and pass on this cultural treasure (Foley 237).
Okinawan language
Central Okinawan, or simply Okinawan , is a Northern Ryukyuan language spoken primarily in the southern half of the island of Okinawa, as well as in the surrounding islands of Kerama, Kumejima, Tonaki, Aguni, and a number of smaller peripheral islands...
and Japanese language
Japanese language
is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists .Japanese is an...
s, is a form of narrative traditional Ryukyuan dance.
Originating in the Okinawan capital of Shuri, Okinawa in 1719, the original purpose of this dance was to provide amusement and diversions, which were termed ukwanshin, for the Chinese diplomats who traveled to Okinawa. Tamagusuku Chokun, a Ryūkyū courtier who lived from 1684–1734, is credited with the establishment of kumi odori as a frequently presented court demonstration. An amalgamation of several different types of East Asian dance, the kumi odori has continued to hold a place in Okinawan culture, and is now recognized by the Japanese government as an Important Intangible Cultural Property
Intangible Cultural Properties of Japan
, as defined by the Japanese government's Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties , are Cultural PropertiesIn this article, capitals indicate an official designation as opposed to a simple definition, e.g "Cultural Properties" as opposed to "cultural properties". of high historical or...
. In 2010 it was inscribed on the UNESCO
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations...
Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity
The Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage are established by UNESCO aiming to ensure the better protection of important intangible cultural heritages worldwide and the awareness of their significance...
. It remains today a prime example of native art sustained by the people of Okinawa.
Historical and political background
Okinawa prefectureOkinawa Prefecture
is one of Japan's southern prefectures. It consists of hundreds of the Ryukyu Islands in a chain over long, which extends southwest from Kyūshū to Taiwan. Okinawa's capital, Naha, is located in the southern part of Okinawa Island...
is composed of more than 140 islands, 40 of which inhabited, that lie beneath the southernmost Japanese main islands. A point of contention throughout the years, ownership of Okinawa was often disputed by major powers. The island of Okinawa was first ruled by warlords, called either aji or anji, and was unified under the rule of Sho Hashi
Sho Hashi
Shō Hashi was the first king of the Ryūkyū Kingdom , uniting the three kingdoms of Chūzan, Hokuzan, and Nanzan by conquest...
in the early fifteenth century (Smits 90). Eventually Okinawa conquered the other Ryukyu islands, expanding its small kingdom. Trade was booming in East Asia in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries and Okinawa’s position as a middleman helped foster relationships with Japan and China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. Once trade diminished, Ryukyu faced the threat of invasion by Japan. In 1609, the Satsuma domain took control of the Kingdom of Ryukyu in order to take advantage of its connections with China, but ruled only indirectly until the 1870s (Smits 91). Coincidentally, this actually served to promote Chinese culture. The ambiguity of Ryukyu’s political status while under Japanese control was a debate that concerned most of the elite. Even though it was under Japanese domination and its leaders were aware of this, it maintained its autonomy until 1879 (Smits 107). By this time, the Ryukyu began to come under more formal Japanese control, with the Meiji Restoration
Meiji Restoration
The , also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution, Reform or Renewal, was a chain of events that restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868...
in 1868 it was made a prefecture of Japan, and then it was occupied by the United States from 1945-1972. In 1972 it was finally returned to Japan as a result of gradually increasing Japanese control.
Kumi odori was born out of the necessity of diplomatic acts. In 1372, King Satto of Chozan consented to follow the tribute system with China and, as part of this system, Chinese envoys settled in Okinawa for approximately six months out of the year whenever the succession of a new king needed to be confirmed by the Chinese emperor (Foley 2). It was essential that these important visitors be entertained, so kumi odori was developed in 1719 by the odori bugyo, or minister of dance, Tamagusuku Chokun. Appointed to the position in 1715, his main responsibility was to commission entertainment for the lavish banquets held for the visiting emissaries. He had previously made five trips to Japan, stopping in both Satsuma and Edo
Edo
, also romanized as Yedo or Yeddo, is the former name of the Japanese capital Tokyo, and was the seat of power for the Tokugawa shogunate which ruled Japan from 1603 to 1868...
(today's Tokyo
Tokyo
, ; officially , is one of the 47 prefectures of Japan. Tokyo is the capital of Japan, the center of the Greater Tokyo Area, and the largest metropolitan area of Japan. It is the seat of the Japanese government and the Imperial Palace, and the home of the Japanese Imperial Family...
). While there, he studied all the fine arts, gaining knowledge of kyogen
Kyogen
is a form of traditional Japanese comic theater. It developed alongside Noh, was performed along with Noh as an intermission of sorts between Noh acts, on the same Noh stage, and retains close links to Noh in the modern day; therefore, it is sometimes designated Noh-kyōgen...
, kabuki
Kabuki
is classical Japanese dance-drama. Kabuki theatre is known for the stylization of its drama and for the elaborate make-up worn by some of its performers.The individual kanji characters, from left to right, mean sing , dance , and skill...
and Noh
Noh
, or - derived from the Sino-Japanese word for "skill" or "talent" - is a major form of classical Japanese musical drama that has been performed since the 14th century. Many characters are masked, with men playing male and female roles. Traditionally, a Noh "performance day" lasts all day and...
, which greatly influenced his work (Foley 3). He was inspired by the Chinese arts as well, and at this time Chinese literature, Confucianism, and even the sanshin
Sanshin
The sanshin is an Okinawan musical instrument and precursor of the Japanese shamisen. Often likened to a banjo, it consists of a snakeskin-covered body, neck and three strings....
, an instrument later adapted for kumi odori performances, had been absorbed into Okinawan culture (Foley 2). Kumi odori was staged for the first time at the Choyo banquet in spring of 1719: Shushin kaneiri (Possessed by Love, She Takes Possession of the Temple Bell) and Nido tekiuchi (The Children’s Revenge), which were Chokun’s first works, were performed by male aristocrats and remain a major part of the repertory to this day. With the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate
Tokugawa shogunate
The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the and the , was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family. This period is known as the Edo period and gets its name from the capital city, Edo, which is now called Tokyo, after the name was...
and the rise of Meiji Rule in 1868, kumi odori was all but forgotten. The aristocrats who previously enjoyed the luxuries of time and money that allowed them to study court dance were now scarce in number but, through a few notable figures, it was passed down through the generations and performed for the general population. Even the common people now had the chance to enter the schools and become performers (Thornbury 233). After the American occupation of Okinawa came to an end and Okinawa was ceded back to Japan in 1972, there was a revival of sorts of all the indigenous art forms. The Japanese support of local Okinawan arts is a source of much debate. Although Okinawan culture was suppressed by the Japanese government during the war, but the On May 15, 1972 kumi odori was proclaimed a nationally important intangible cultural property
Intangible Cultural Properties of Japan
, as defined by the Japanese government's Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties , are Cultural PropertiesIn this article, capitals indicate an official designation as opposed to a simple definition, e.g "Cultural Properties" as opposed to "cultural properties". of high historical or...
, or kuni no juyo mukei bunkazai, under the Cultural Properties Protection Law, or Bunkazai Hogoho. Kumi odori was the fifth performing art to be selected as such, joining gagaku (ancient court music), bunraku (puppet theatre), no, and kabuki (other traditional Japanese dances) as corporate entities. After its inception, gidayu bushi, tokiwazu bushi, itchu bushi, kato bushi, miyazono bushi, and ogie bushi- all musical or narrative arts- would join them in this esteemed category (Thornbury 233-234). After a decade of petitioning for an arts complex to house the prefecture’s native arts, the National Theatre Okinawa http://www.nt-okinawa.or.jp/en/ was built in Urasoe-shi, near the city of Naha in 2004. The reasons for this are not entirely clear, but despite government funding shortages, the officials in Tokyo agreed to support the project. Not only does the theatre attach importance to the city of Okinawa, but it is also a tourist attraction, which gives a more rational basis for their support (Thornbury 243).
Elements of style
Kumi odori is a mixture of dance styles that has its roots in Okinawan, Chinese, and Japanese methods. In addition to this, it incorporates qualities from religious dances, kami ashibi or chondara, and chants, umui, which were prevalent in villages of the past (Foley 2). A true conglomerate, it merges music, song, narrative, and dance all for a dramatic effect. Originally performed by completely male casts of aristocratic origin, today it is also performed by women who typically take on the roles of females or young males. In the past, casting was dependent greatly on body type, and smaller males would perform these parts.The movements of the kumi odori are very slow and deliberate. There are no shows of bravura nor are there any obvious feats of difficulty, rather the complexity of the steps lies in its restrained simplicity (Foley 6). Highly stylized, its characteristic gliding walk is said to be one of the hardest steps to master. In classical ballet, it is said that it is more difficult to truly master bourrees (tiny connected steps en pointe which travel across the floor) than it is to complete multiple pirouettes, although the latter may look more impressive, and the same notion applies here. Generally speaking, the easier a step may seem, the harder it is to perfect. There are three levels of odori (dance): realistic actions, emotional actions, and dances within a dance. The characteristic walk discussed earlier would be an example of a realistic action, meant to tell a story. The addition of dance steps to these actions would comprise the second level, and the inclusion of travel dances, or michiyuki, within the storyline would fulfill the third (Foley 7). This is common in many forms of dance, especially in the classical ballet. Often, the main storyline will be subverted by peasant dances or divertissements provided purely for the dance itself, rather than substantially promoting the storyline. Although kumi odori shows greats parallels to the no style of performance, there are also several characteristics that provide distinction between the two. Both feature sparse settings, eliminating the need for elaborate backdrops or scenery. Similar material, structure, and quality of performance echo in both. However, where no deals with Buddhist thought, kumi odori leans toward Confucianism, choosing to promote moderation rather than enlightenment. Where no performers would typically wear a mask, kumi odori performers express their characters through makeup and other means (Foley 3-4). Facial expressions are understated and emotion is displayed through the movements of the head or the cast of the eyes (Foley 7). The eyes always lead the head, and just as in classical ballet, the eyes arrive first and the rest of the body follows. Such careful attention to detail gives a refined and controlled action life, without which the art would cease to give the desired impression.
There are two qualities that define a good kumi odori performance: kan and konashi. Kan is similar to the idea of innate stage presence, something that cannot be learned. Konashi, on the other hand, is the culmination of the skills acquired through years of experience. All performers must have both characteristics in order for a performance to be deemed good. The idea of hin, or innate grace, is also important (Foley 11). This does not come immediately and can only be achieved after years of hard work and dedication. It is said that one cannot be a good performer of kumi odori, no or kabuki, until at least fifty, which is quite the opposite of the baby ballerinas favored by many in western dance. Perhaps most importantly, while no focuses on past events, the kumi odori style focuses on present action (Foley 4). Kabuki and no both lack the heavy emphasis on music that is so important to kumi odori.
Music
Chokun used ryuka, the classical poetry of Okinawa, and classical music for his songs. Instruments typically included three stringed instruments: the sanshin (brought from China), the kutu, and the kucho; the hanso, a flute; and two drums, the odaiko and the kodaiko. The lyrics were usually sung by the sanshin players, who were the most important instrumental component, and songs were used to heighten the mood in intense situations. These songs were crucial to the performance, and often replaced dialogue much like in Broadway musicals (Foley 8). And as opposed to the spirited music of Okinawa’s common folk, this music was formal and somewhat austere, projecting the idea of nobility through the music. Delivery is formal and full of metaphors just as in Japanese literature of the time. Two styles were applied: strong singing, or kyogin, which was reserved for powerful male roles, and soft singing, known as wagin or yuwajin, which was used for female or young male roles (Foley 8). It is important to remember that most of the important singing was done by the musicians. The musicians either sat onstage or stage left during the performances, or sat behind a drop since the stage was ordinarily an eighteen foot platform, much like that of the no (Foley 9). When performed in the present day, the musicians will sit either stage left or in the wings, preserving the uncluttered look of the original, and it is interesting to note that at no time are there more than six actors on stage (Thornbury 231). It is said that the essence of the action holds the importance, rather than the action or peripheral elements themselves. Similarly, realistic props were avoided, and would rather symbolize ideas instead of being taken literally.Repertory
Although approximately sixty kumi odori pieces have been accounted for, Chokun remains the most influential figure. Not surprisingly, all of his pieces were related to no in some way, which is understandable given the success of kabuki theater’s adaptation of the same. His presentations were roughly half an hour long, unlike the two hour and forty minute performances that would come later (Foley 3). These works are generally categorized into two groups by subject matter: domestic plays, called sewa mono and historical plays, or jidai mono. Jidai mono, or vendetta plays as they are often called (kataki-uchi mono) are frequently based on revenge, while love and filial devotion and piety are the main focus of the sewa mono (Foley 8). Shushin kaneiri remains the most important piece of kumi odori, and shares many similarities to the Dojoji legend told through many other types of theatre arts. “Chokun’s five pieces,” or Chokun no goban, are completed with the addition of three more pieces: Mekarushii (The Children Left Behind), Onna monogurui (The Grief-Crazed Woman), and Koko no maki (A Tale of Filial Piety) (Thornbury 232). Tasato Chochoku, who lived from 1703–1773, was another great figure who created enduring works like Manzai tekiuchi, which translates as “Vengeance Fulfilled.” His contributions mainly centered on the theme of revenge, which in turn dealt with loyalty and devotion, as well as the creation of some comedic pieces (Thornbury 232). Five new kumi odori were developed in 2001 by Oshiro Tatsuhiro, in the first major attempt to revamp the repertoire since 1976. 1976 marked the year Kin Ryosho, a renowned kumi odori performer and teacher finished his alteration of parts of previous works, something that is inevitable when an art form is passed from generation to generation. Kin Ryosho (金武良章, 1908–1993) taught kumi odori to both sexes at his studio in Naha. He was taught by his father, Kin Ryojin (1873–1936), a student of Amuru PechinPechin
The is an Okinawan term for the warrior class of the former Ryūkyū Kingdom , the class equivalent of the Japanese Samurai...
, who was a famous performer in the last ukwanshin in 1866. Noho Miyagi (宮城能鳳) is the other notable kumi odori performer and dancer of the twentieth century. After studying under Genzo Tamagusuku, he taught at the Okinawa Geino Daigaku (University of the Arts), providing his students with the skills necessary to perform and pass on this cultural treasure (Foley 237).