Kotsinos
Encyclopedia
Kotsinos is a settlement on the island of Lemnos
, Greece
. It is part of the community of Repanidi
, and the municipal unit of Moudros
, and situated 25 to 30 km ENE of Myrina
. Its population is 3 people (2001 census).
. Otherwise in text mentioned as Kokkinos, Kotsinos or Kotzinos. The name derived from the red soil which has the area's soil and also in the Lemnian land, the rest dug a neighbouring hill Despotis, the ancient Moschylo near the chapel known as Sotiros (the Saviour).
Later on, during the early Palaiologos dynasty
rule, the monasteries which had earlier been on the island began to fortify themselves.
Later on, it was mentioned as the same monastery began to share with John Prodromos and. In 1355, the castle chief Tzymalos received a vineyar at the Philotheou Monastery
of Mount Athos
.
In the same year, the location Kokkala (meaning bones) is mentioned near Kotsinos as a small settlement. It regarded the location "the Springs" which still exist today, which became Kotsinos' ordinary water supply via clay pipes. Angelis Michelis wrote that from there water was supplied to Hephaestia:
The Kokkala springs were used for supplying water to Hephaestia, as an evidence of large suspended pipes was discovered, directed from Kokkala to Hephaestia.
In 1858, Conze uncovered several trees upon the hills which the road headed to an area with the name Kokkala and it meant as a small settlement. The Kokkala spring was on the other side of the Lemnian hill and was mentioned by Tozer in 1889. Today, the area has two chapels, Saint Athanasius and Theotokos.
of the Palaiologos dynasty Irene Gattilusio
in which she lived and died there in 1440, under the monastic name Eugenia. In that way, Kotsinos was runed by the Genoese Gattilusio
and the Orthodox metropolitan moved the area from Kotsinos to Saint Paul Monastery in Livadochori
, today as Metropolitan. In that time, its port began to serve better as an interesting station which brought in travellers from the time as well as the Russian monks Grethenios and Epiphanius
. In 1464 when the Venetians fled from Lemnos, the castle was one of the three popular on the island. As Argyrios Moschidis wrote (p 151):
"...sono tre buoni castelli chiamandi Cochino, Mudron et Paleo Castron."
As it appears from the surviving ruins, the castle is founded at the top of an artificial hill 20m high and maintained an area of around 4 acres (16,187.4 m²) of land. The dug trench which connected with the sea, the northern side of the wall was founded insite the water. The fortifications was as high as 6 metres (19.7 ft). In the 15th century it was completely destroyed by the Turks.
The monastery was mentioned in 1415 as an independent parish with the name Zoodochos Pigi of Sygkellos. It was recorded in 1154 in a wooden writing by Thevet as Agiasma, in 1677 by Covel as Panagia Kotzinatz and Hagiasma by Piacenza and Dapper (1680–88). In 1801, Hunt visited agiasma where he found a former monasery. Conze in 1858 founded a small church. In 1894, De Launay mentioned a church as much in the work even in the map and Friedrich in 1904.
The modern monastery was built in 1954 by the builder Giannis Fotiados with several Greeks from America
and Australia
.
. According to a rumor, as it extended to the west mostly from a poem in 1669 at the Dondini institute, the castle survived the last moment in the trust of Maroula in which her father was killed, grasped the stick and hearthenly the defending warriors which shelled the siege.
Little is known of her story, but we can say that the Turks, following their conquest of Constantinople in 1453 and later on of Eastern Europe, occupied Lemnos in 1462. However, in the contest for the control of the Aegean, they were soon expelled from the island by the Venetians. In 1478, according to the eminent historian on Lemnos Argyrios Moschides (Αργύριος Μοσχίδης), Lemnos was besieged and on the brink of reconquest by the Turks. The Lemnians, rather than become re-enslaved to them, joined the Venetians to repel them. In the decisive battle at the man-made and walled hill of Kotsinas, commanding the Bay of Bournias, the combined forces, following the heroism of the Lemnian maiden Maroula (probably daughter of a high-ranked officer), overcame the Turks who were winning and forced them to take to their ships and flee.
In his book Limnos (Η Λήμνος), p. 84, Moschides wrote regarding Maroula: "In the critical moment (of the battle) however, there appeared like an angel of salvation, a young Lemnian maiden by the name of Maroula who, upon seeing her father dying by the sword of a fanatic Muslim while defending an entry to the fort, and for the moment perceiving the consequences enslavement would bring upon her, the shame and dishonor, grabbed her father's sword which lay by his side in front of her, and charged against the enemy with such ferocity and valor, that she became a symbol of emulation to the defenders about her. Becoming encouraged by her heroism, they succeeded to dislodge their foes, forcing them to lose all hope of winning the battle and take to their ships and flee from the port."
Records exist that the Venetian Admiral Giacomo Loredano, marveling the heroism of the young maiden and wishing to reward her, offered her to marry whomever of his officers she would choose, adding that she would receive a rich dowry from the public treasury. Maroula proudly declined, saying she could not possibly marry a man whose character was not previously known to her. There are no known records as to what course her life took afterward.
Maroula became a legend and is called "new Amazon", "armed Pallada" and "Jean d’ Arc of Lemnos". Lemnos was saved from the Turks then, but it was to be for only a short while, as under a treaty in 1479 the island was ceded to them.
Evben today is doubtly during as much information that happened during the siege of Kotsinos and Palaiokastro (Myrina
) as Maroula was a girl and the husband (? wife ?) of a killed warrior Georgios Makris in an episode that was hymned by the Italian poets and writers including Sabelico, Coelius, Calcagnini, Fulgosus, Vianol and especially by Greeks including Kostis Palamas
, Aristomenis Proveleggios, Maria Lambadaridou-Pothou, Antonis Soupios, etc. A bronze statue of Maroula was erected in 1969 by the Lemnos Teachers Council, a work by the sculptor Hippocratis Savouras which reminds to the traveller of that heroic battle.
Belon mentioned the area around the castle, in the fieldy areas between the two ports had a large village with many vineyards and farms made with blonde horses, one of these which now has disappeared and are now only founded in Skyros. Other sources were also written by Thevet in 1554.
Other visits to the port by other travellers included Porcacchi in 1572, Rosaccio in 1580, Lubenau in 1586, Dy Loir in 1641, Boschini in 1658, Covel in 1677, Piacenza in 1680 and 1685, anonymous in 1685, Dapper in 1688 and Coro-nelli in 1696.
The Venetians returned to Lemnos in 1656 and 1657 and during the rule ruined its walls and buildings between these was its castle in which it oppositely ruined as known by Dapper in 1688. The settlement became unsafe and its residents fled. The Turk which remained in Kotsinos fled to Agios Ypatios
and Livadochori for supervising the agricultural subdivisions in the northwestern and the centre of the island sourcably. Along with them were the Greek poor-farmers. The remainder resided to Repanidi
and other seaside villages. Kotsinos was abandoned and aerially ruined the port productions.
In the 18th century, many thinked that yhr tuins was the same as ancient Hephaestia and by Meletios in 1728, Pococke in 1738, Hunt in 1801, Lacroix in 1848, Ragkavis in 1854 which mentioned as its name and not as a safe harbor, Frieseman in around 1780, Choiseul-Gouffier on a map mentioned Kotsino as a port with cuscoms but on a wrong spot and a text that wrote about the settlement and a port with a different name Bournias. It was inhabited by a few inhabitants. Hunt in 1801 and Richter in 1816 recorded only ruins.
In the later years lived other in no recovery and did not had 700 residents that was mentioned by Balbi in 1839. In 1858, Conze anchored at its port and had several warehouses and no stores. Tozer in 1889 knew Kotsino had an old pottery which had lived all of its life. Logically it was a member of the Tsoukala family in which arrived from Maroneia
and had a pot shop from 1840. Another old pottery shop was recorded in the 1848 writing. In the same era, the building which a pottery shop was mentioned a school for the children of Repanidi.
The pottery was an old traditional art of the region. In 1304, it mentioned as Tzoukalaria. Potteries founded on the island by Randolph in 1680. The first glass was used from the Lemnian land for neutralized walls from the contaminated sippings. Lainades in which was known by others, had for several years with the last of Nikolas Tsoukalas (died 1991) and Tsamaidis.
Images of the ruined areas with some people and buildings around the port and its church gives for Kotsinos and De Launay in 1894, Hauttecoeur in 1903 and Friedrich in 1904. In the field areas had modest chapel, the remaining from the older times including Saint George (from an 1874 photo, a stone-wood temple with stairs marble and stone stairs and an old springs in the yard), Saint James built over a rubble, Agioi Giannides and a nearby chapel in Repanidi, Agia Kyriaki and Saint Athanasius.
In 1981 it had 16 inhabitants and as a separate settlement of the community of Repanidi, it fell to only three in 1991.
Lemnos
Lemnos is an island of Greece in the northern part of the Aegean Sea. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within the Lemnos peripheral unit, which is part of the North Aegean Periphery. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Myrina...
, Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
. It is part of the community of Repanidi
Repanidi
Repanidi is a Greek village 20 km ENE of Myrina in the municipal unit of Moudros, Greece. Its 2001 population was 365 people. It is located in the northeast of the island of Lemnos...
, and the municipal unit of Moudros
Moudros
Moudros is a town and a former municipality on the island of Lemnos, North Aegean, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Lemnos, of which it is a municipal unit. It covers the entire eastern peninsula of the island, with a land area of 185.127 km²,...
, and situated 25 to 30 km ENE of Myrina
Myrina
Myrina may refer to:*Myrina, Greece, capital of the Greek island of Lemnos*Myrina , ancient city on the coast of Mysia *Myrina , name of several female characters in Greek mythology...
. Its population is 3 people (2001 census).
Nearest places
- KontopouliKontopouliKontopouli is a settlement in the northeastern part of the Greek island of Limnos, in the municipal unit of Moudros. Its 2001 population was 661 for the village and 703 for the municipal district. Its total area is around . The vicinity was founded from a tiny characteristic farming settlement....
, southeast - RepanidiRepanidiRepanidi is a Greek village 20 km ENE of Myrina in the municipal unit of Moudros, Greece. Its 2001 population was 365 people. It is located in the northeast of the island of Lemnos...
, south - Varos, southwest
- Lybovitsi, NNW
Population
| Year | Population |
|---|---|
| 1981 | 16 |
| 1991 | 3 |
| 2001 | 3 |
Transportation
The village has about 4 km of paved road, 5 km of gravel road and has about 4 km of hydro and phone lines.Geography
Much of the area are hilly and grassy and partly forested, some farmlands dominate some of the area.Founding
Kotsinos was mentioned as Cocini for the first time in 1136 as a safe port with mercantile stairs. The church of Saint Blas near Kotsino in the use of the parish of the Venetians. It did not as its only inhabitants as it had thought that the nearby Hephaestia, the capital of Lemnos began to decline, from that time where the port of the Hundred Heads had suffered a considerable damages from raids. Nearly Kotsinos became the marketing center of the island's north coast. Later, it had spread the confidence, as it said the succeeded settlement of Hephaeatis, something that solemnly by many travellers.The name
The name Kotsinos is derived from the Greek word kokkinos, meaning "red". The kk became a ts or tz by a sound shift similar to palatalizationPalatalization
In linguistics, palatalization , also palatization, may refer to two different processes by which a sound, usually a consonant, comes to be produced with the tongue in a position in the mouth near the palate....
. Otherwise in text mentioned as Kokkinos, Kotsinos or Kotzinos. The name derived from the red soil which has the area's soil and also in the Lemnian land, the rest dug a neighbouring hill Despotis, the ancient Moschylo near the chapel known as Sotiros (the Saviour).
Medieval period
The area began to settle extentively during the Venetian rule (1207–76), when a castle was built by the Navigaioso family of the Venetian dukes of Lemnos. Hephaestia was abandoned and only the name "Palaiopoli" (=Old City) remained as a remembrance of the ancient city. In 1276, it was sacked and raided by the Byzantines and returned it, it had a feudal rule of Foscaro and Navigaioso families (Foscari - Navigaiozi).Later on, during the early Palaiologos dynasty
Palaiologos
Palaiologos , often latinized as Palaeologus, was a Byzantine Greek noble family, which produced the last ruling dynasty of the Byzantine Empire. After the Fourth Crusade, members of the family fled to the neighboring Empire of Nicaea, where Michael VIII Palaiologos became co-emperor in 1259,...
rule, the monasteries which had earlier been on the island began to fortify themselves.
Later on, it was mentioned as the same monastery began to share with John Prodromos and. In 1355, the castle chief Tzymalos received a vineyar at the Philotheou Monastery
Philotheou monastery
Filotheou monastery is an Eastern Orthodox monastery at the monastic state of Mount Athos in Greece. It stands on the north-eastern side of the peninsula.It was founded by the Blessed Philotheus, in the end of the 10th century...
of Mount Athos
Mount Athos
Mount Athos is a mountain and peninsula in Macedonia, Greece. A World Heritage Site, it is home to 20 Eastern Orthodox monasteries and forms a self-governed monastic state within the sovereignty of the Hellenic Republic. Spiritually, Mount Athos comes under the direct jurisdiction of the...
.
In the same year, the location Kokkala (meaning bones) is mentioned near Kotsinos as a small settlement. It regarded the location "the Springs" which still exist today, which became Kotsinos' ordinary water supply via clay pipes. Angelis Michelis wrote that from there water was supplied to Hephaestia:
The Kokkala springs were used for supplying water to Hephaestia, as an evidence of large suspended pipes was discovered, directed from Kokkala to Hephaestia.
In 1858, Conze uncovered several trees upon the hills which the road headed to an area with the name Kokkala and it meant as a small settlement. The Kokkala spring was on the other side of the Lemnian hill and was mentioned by Tozer in 1889. Today, the area has two chapels, Saint Athanasius and Theotokos.
The castle
The Kotsinos castle was built in 1361 and in 1408 was received under the widow of John VII PalaiologosJohn VII Palaiologos
John VII Palaiologos was Byzantine Emperor for five months in 1390.-Life:...
of the Palaiologos dynasty Irene Gattilusio
Irene Gattilusio
Irene Gattilusio, born Eugenia Gattilusio was the wife of John VII Palaiologos, a Byzantine Emperor in 1390.-Family:She was a daughter of Francesco II of Lesbos and Valentina Doria....
in which she lived and died there in 1440, under the monastic name Eugenia. In that way, Kotsinos was runed by the Genoese Gattilusio
Gattilusio
The Gattilusi were a powerful Genoese family who controlled a number of possessions in the northern Aegean from 1355 until the mid 15th century....
and the Orthodox metropolitan moved the area from Kotsinos to Saint Paul Monastery in Livadochori
Livadochori, Lemnos
Livadochori is a village in the Greek island of Lesbos, part of the municipal unit Nea Koutali. Its 2001 population was 474.-Nearest places:*Karpasi, northeast*Kallithea, southeast...
, today as Metropolitan. In that time, its port began to serve better as an interesting station which brought in travellers from the time as well as the Russian monks Grethenios and Epiphanius
Epiphanius
Epiphanius was the name of several early Christian scholars and ecclesiastics:*Epiphanius of Pavia *Epiphanius of Salamis , bishop of Salamis in Cyprus, author of the Panarion, or Medicine Chest against Heresies*Epiphanius of Constantinople, , Patriarch of Constantinople*Epiphanius Scholasticus ,...
. In 1464 when the Venetians fled from Lemnos, the castle was one of the three popular on the island. As Argyrios Moschidis wrote (p 151):
"...sono tre buoni castelli chiamandi Cochino, Mudron et Paleo Castron."
As it appears from the surviving ruins, the castle is founded at the top of an artificial hill 20m high and maintained an area of around 4 acres (16,187.4 m²) of land. The dug trench which connected with the sea, the northern side of the wall was founded insite the water. The fortifications was as high as 6 metres (19.7 ft). In the 15th century it was completely destroyed by the Turks.
Zoodochos Pigi
On the Kotsinos hill inside the castle, the monastery of Zoodochos Pigi above an underground spring in which goes down 64 steps (once 51 and then 57), made it to the area of the sea. Mainly when the castle trench was made, it provided an underground portico, as it did not lose the indispensable in water against a siege.The monastery was mentioned in 1415 as an independent parish with the name Zoodochos Pigi of Sygkellos. It was recorded in 1154 in a wooden writing by Thevet as Agiasma, in 1677 by Covel as Panagia Kotzinatz and Hagiasma by Piacenza and Dapper (1680–88). In 1801, Hunt visited agiasma where he found a former monasery. Conze in 1858 founded a small church. In 1894, De Launay mentioned a church as much in the work even in the map and Friedrich in 1904.
The modern monastery was built in 1954 by the builder Giannis Fotiados with several Greeks from America
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
.
Maroula
In 1478, Kotsinos passed in history as it was ruined by Suleiman the MagnificentSuleiman the Magnificent
Suleiman I was the tenth and longest-reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1520 to his death in 1566. He is known in the West as Suleiman the Magnificent and in the East, as "The Lawgiver" , for his complete reconstruction of the Ottoman legal system...
. According to a rumor, as it extended to the west mostly from a poem in 1669 at the Dondini institute, the castle survived the last moment in the trust of Maroula in which her father was killed, grasped the stick and hearthenly the defending warriors which shelled the siege.
Little is known of her story, but we can say that the Turks, following their conquest of Constantinople in 1453 and later on of Eastern Europe, occupied Lemnos in 1462. However, in the contest for the control of the Aegean, they were soon expelled from the island by the Venetians. In 1478, according to the eminent historian on Lemnos Argyrios Moschides (Αργύριος Μοσχίδης), Lemnos was besieged and on the brink of reconquest by the Turks. The Lemnians, rather than become re-enslaved to them, joined the Venetians to repel them. In the decisive battle at the man-made and walled hill of Kotsinas, commanding the Bay of Bournias, the combined forces, following the heroism of the Lemnian maiden Maroula (probably daughter of a high-ranked officer), overcame the Turks who were winning and forced them to take to their ships and flee.
In his book Limnos (Η Λήμνος), p. 84, Moschides wrote regarding Maroula: "In the critical moment (of the battle) however, there appeared like an angel of salvation, a young Lemnian maiden by the name of Maroula who, upon seeing her father dying by the sword of a fanatic Muslim while defending an entry to the fort, and for the moment perceiving the consequences enslavement would bring upon her, the shame and dishonor, grabbed her father's sword which lay by his side in front of her, and charged against the enemy with such ferocity and valor, that she became a symbol of emulation to the defenders about her. Becoming encouraged by her heroism, they succeeded to dislodge their foes, forcing them to lose all hope of winning the battle and take to their ships and flee from the port."
Records exist that the Venetian Admiral Giacomo Loredano, marveling the heroism of the young maiden and wishing to reward her, offered her to marry whomever of his officers she would choose, adding that she would receive a rich dowry from the public treasury. Maroula proudly declined, saying she could not possibly marry a man whose character was not previously known to her. There are no known records as to what course her life took afterward.
Maroula became a legend and is called "new Amazon", "armed Pallada" and "Jean d’ Arc of Lemnos". Lemnos was saved from the Turks then, but it was to be for only a short while, as under a treaty in 1479 the island was ceded to them.
Evben today is doubtly during as much information that happened during the siege of Kotsinos and Palaiokastro (Myrina
Myrina
Myrina may refer to:*Myrina, Greece, capital of the Greek island of Lemnos*Myrina , ancient city on the coast of Mysia *Myrina , name of several female characters in Greek mythology...
) as Maroula was a girl and the husband (? wife ?) of a killed warrior Georgios Makris in an episode that was hymned by the Italian poets and writers including Sabelico, Coelius, Calcagnini, Fulgosus, Vianol and especially by Greeks including Kostis Palamas
Kostis Palamas
Kostis Palamas was a Greek poet who wrote the words to the Olympic Hymn. He was a central figure of the Greek literary generation of the 1880s and one of the cofounders of the so-called New Athenian School along with Georgios Drosinis, Nikos Kampas, Ioanis Polemis.-Biography:Born in Patras, he...
, Aristomenis Proveleggios, Maria Lambadaridou-Pothou, Antonis Soupios, etc. A bronze statue of Maroula was erected in 1969 by the Lemnos Teachers Council, a work by the sculptor Hippocratis Savouras which reminds to the traveller of that heroic battle.
Ottoman period
In the first years of the Ottoman period, Kotsinos was known as a peaceful period. The port and the merchants gave life around the area. Jews, Venetians, Ottomans and Romians councilled a multicultural community. The port was metnioned in the entire port areas and its sources by travellers with different names: Piri Reis (1521 as Limãn-i-Kügânaz ή Cökenez), Belon (1548 Kokkino).Belon mentioned the area around the castle, in the fieldy areas between the two ports had a large village with many vineyards and farms made with blonde horses, one of these which now has disappeared and are now only founded in Skyros. Other sources were also written by Thevet in 1554.
Other visits to the port by other travellers included Porcacchi in 1572, Rosaccio in 1580, Lubenau in 1586, Dy Loir in 1641, Boschini in 1658, Covel in 1677, Piacenza in 1680 and 1685, anonymous in 1685, Dapper in 1688 and Coro-nelli in 1696.
The Venetians returned to Lemnos in 1656 and 1657 and during the rule ruined its walls and buildings between these was its castle in which it oppositely ruined as known by Dapper in 1688. The settlement became unsafe and its residents fled. The Turk which remained in Kotsinos fled to Agios Ypatios
Agios Ypatios
Agios Ypatios is a settlement in the Greek island of Limnos, it is in the municipal unit of Moudros and the community of Kontopouli. The population was 13 in the 2001 census. It is located ENE of Myrina and is connected with a road linking to the southern, central and western portions of the...
and Livadochori for supervising the agricultural subdivisions in the northwestern and the centre of the island sourcably. Along with them were the Greek poor-farmers. The remainder resided to Repanidi
Repanidi
Repanidi is a Greek village 20 km ENE of Myrina in the municipal unit of Moudros, Greece. Its 2001 population was 365 people. It is located in the northeast of the island of Lemnos...
and other seaside villages. Kotsinos was abandoned and aerially ruined the port productions.
In the 18th century, many thinked that yhr tuins was the same as ancient Hephaestia and by Meletios in 1728, Pococke in 1738, Hunt in 1801, Lacroix in 1848, Ragkavis in 1854 which mentioned as its name and not as a safe harbor, Frieseman in around 1780, Choiseul-Gouffier on a map mentioned Kotsino as a port with cuscoms but on a wrong spot and a text that wrote about the settlement and a port with a different name Bournias. It was inhabited by a few inhabitants. Hunt in 1801 and Richter in 1816 recorded only ruins.
In the later years lived other in no recovery and did not had 700 residents that was mentioned by Balbi in 1839. In 1858, Conze anchored at its port and had several warehouses and no stores. Tozer in 1889 knew Kotsino had an old pottery which had lived all of its life. Logically it was a member of the Tsoukala family in which arrived from Maroneia
Maroneia
Maroneia is a village and a former municipality in the Rhodope peripheral unit, East Macedonia and Thrace, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Maroneia-Sapes, of which it is a municipal unit. Population 7,644...
and had a pot shop from 1840. Another old pottery shop was recorded in the 1848 writing. In the same era, the building which a pottery shop was mentioned a school for the children of Repanidi.
The pottery was an old traditional art of the region. In 1304, it mentioned as Tzoukalaria. Potteries founded on the island by Randolph in 1680. The first glass was used from the Lemnian land for neutralized walls from the contaminated sippings. Lainades in which was known by others, had for several years with the last of Nikolas Tsoukalas (died 1991) and Tsamaidis.
Images of the ruined areas with some people and buildings around the port and its church gives for Kotsinos and De Launay in 1894, Hauttecoeur in 1903 and Friedrich in 1904. In the field areas had modest chapel, the remaining from the older times including Saint George (from an 1874 photo, a stone-wood temple with stairs marble and stone stairs and an old springs in the yard), Saint James built over a rubble, Agioi Giannides and a nearby chapel in Repanidi, Agia Kyriaki and Saint Athanasius.
Modern era
Pictures of ruins presents even today a winter settlement. It is entirely an abandoned fishing village, a fishing port for Repanidi. A few pottery shops which had halted to operate except for nearby Tsamaidis which are made with a touristic characteristis.In 1981 it had 16 inhabitants and as a separate settlement of the community of Repanidi, it fell to only three in 1991.