Kenneth Ludmerer
Encyclopedia
Kenneth M. Ludmerer is a professor of history and of biostatics at Washington University in St. Louis
. Ludmerer began as an instructor of internal medicine
to the chief resident at Barnes-Jewish Hospital
and Washington University School of Medicine
, from 1976-79. In 1979, he became both a professor of medicine in the medical school, and a professor of history in the Arts & Sciences department. He is the author of three books in print, including two influential and award winning books on the history of medical education in the United States.
in 1968. He received a master's degree in history of medicine from The Johns Hopkins University in 1971, followed by an M.D.
in 1973. His first book was a study of eugenics
, published while he completed his junior rotation in pediatrics
at Johns Hopkins University
. Upon his graduation, Ludmerer became an instructor at Washington University.
ed scholarly articles on the history of medicine.
Ludmerer's first book, Genetics and American Society: A Historical Appraisal, was published by The Johns Hopkins University Press in 1972. He observed in that work that "[p]erhaps no science in modern times has had so great a social impact and has been so enmeshed in diverse social issues as genetics
", noting that "[a]s soon as the science of genetics began, many individuals started speaking of its social import and potential applicability to social problems". He criticized eugenics, characterizing it as a form of racism founded on a poor understanding of genetics. He faulted scientists for failing to correct public misperceptions even when these were acted on politically, as through immigration restrictions directed at ethnic groups characterized as being inferior.
His second book, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education, was also published by The Johns Hopkins University Press, in 1996. The work focuses primarily on the extensive changes which occurred in the period from the 1820s to the 1920s. However, it does go back to earliest instances of formal medical education in the pre-Revolutionary War American colonies of the 1760s, and briefly addresses various trends in medical education up to and including the time in which Ludmerer was writing. He describes how this period saw the transition from unregulated institutions granting degrees to untested, sometimes illiterate students after less than a year of study, to the modern conception of medical schools, heavily regulated and having extensive entrance requirements, and organized curricula requiring four years of study.
Ludmerer particularly identifies the American Civil War
as a transformative event, as the poor training of medical personnel in that era lead to many more deaths from disease than occurred in battle. Ludmerer criticizes the view that the Flexner Report
spurred the advancement of medical education, crediting the report for spurring the closure of substandard medical schools, but noting that most of the innovations recommended by Abraham Flexner
had already been initiated by the better schools by the time the report was written.
Ludmerer's third book, Time to Heal: American Medical Education from the Turn of the Century to the Era of Managed Care, was published by Oxford University Press
in 1999. It is essentially a sequel
to Learning to Heal, using the same narrative style to address in detail the developments in medical education over the twentieth century, and particularly from the 1920s through the 1990s.
in the spring of 2002, and, although Ludmerer himself minimized the importance of the Flexner Report, he was selected by the Association of American Medical Colleges
to receive the "Abraham Flexner Award" for distinguished service to medical education in 2003.
as an expert witness
on medical history on behalf of tobacco companies. Ludmerer testified that, in his opinion, the companies could not have known of certain harmful effects of tobacco before the 1950s, although critics contend that earlier studies did suggest those effects.
Washington University in St. Louis
Washington University in St. Louis is a private research university located in suburban St. Louis, Missouri. Founded in 1853, and named for George Washington, the university has students and faculty from all fifty U.S. states and more than 110 nations...
. Ludmerer began as an instructor of internal medicine
Internal medicine
Internal medicine is the medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases. Physicians specializing in internal medicine are called internists. They are especially skilled in the management of patients who have undifferentiated or multi-system disease processes...
to the chief resident at Barnes-Jewish Hospital
Barnes-Jewish Hospital
Barnes-Jewish Hospital is the largest hospital in the U.S. state of Missouri. It is the adult teaching hospital for Washington University School of Medicine, and is located in St. Louis, Missouri. It is consistently rated one of the top hospitals in the United States by U.S. News & World Report...
and Washington University School of Medicine
Washington University School of Medicine
Washington University School of Medicine , located in St. Louis, Missouri, is one of the graduate schools of Washington University in St. Louis. One of the top medical schools in the United States, it is currently ranked 4th for research according to U.S. News and World Report and has been listed...
, from 1976-79. In 1979, he became both a professor of medicine in the medical school, and a professor of history in the Arts & Sciences department. He is the author of three books in print, including two influential and award winning books on the history of medical education in the United States.
Early life and education
Ludmerer grew up in Long Beach, California, where his father was an ophthalmologist. Interested in medicine from an early age, he received a bachelor's degree in history and science from Harvard UniversityHarvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation chartered in the country...
in 1968. He received a master's degree in history of medicine from The Johns Hopkins University in 1971, followed by an M.D.
Doctor of Medicine
Doctor of Medicine is a doctoral degree for physicians. The degree is granted by medical schools...
in 1973. His first book was a study of eugenics
Eugenics
Eugenics is the "applied science or the bio-social movement which advocates the use of practices aimed at improving the genetic composition of a population", usually referring to human populations. The origins of the concept of eugenics began with certain interpretations of Mendelian inheritance,...
, published while he completed his junior rotation in pediatrics
Pediatrics
Pediatrics or paediatrics is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents. A medical practitioner who specializes in this area is known as a pediatrician or paediatrician...
at Johns Hopkins University
Johns Hopkins University
The Johns Hopkins University, commonly referred to as Johns Hopkins, JHU, or simply Hopkins, is a private research university based in Baltimore, Maryland, United States...
. Upon his graduation, Ludmerer became an instructor at Washington University.
Career
While he was initially concerned that his practice would preclude him from continuing research in history, he decided to continue working in that field, later explaining that "it occurred to me that if physicians can leave the bedside to study molecular genetics, why couldn't they leave the bedside to study the origins of the profession and the historical roots of problems facing medicine?"Scholarship
Ludmerer has published three books and in excess of thirty peer reviewPeer review
Peer review is a process of self-regulation by a profession or a process of evaluation involving qualified individuals within the relevant field. Peer review methods are employed to maintain standards, improve performance and provide credibility...
ed scholarly articles on the history of medicine.
Ludmerer's first book, Genetics and American Society: A Historical Appraisal, was published by The Johns Hopkins University Press in 1972. He observed in that work that "[p]erhaps no science in modern times has had so great a social impact and has been so enmeshed in diverse social issues as genetics
Genetics
Genetics , a discipline of biology, is the science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms....
", noting that "[a]s soon as the science of genetics began, many individuals started speaking of its social import and potential applicability to social problems". He criticized eugenics, characterizing it as a form of racism founded on a poor understanding of genetics. He faulted scientists for failing to correct public misperceptions even when these were acted on politically, as through immigration restrictions directed at ethnic groups characterized as being inferior.
His second book, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education, was also published by The Johns Hopkins University Press, in 1996. The work focuses primarily on the extensive changes which occurred in the period from the 1820s to the 1920s. However, it does go back to earliest instances of formal medical education in the pre-Revolutionary War American colonies of the 1760s, and briefly addresses various trends in medical education up to and including the time in which Ludmerer was writing. He describes how this period saw the transition from unregulated institutions granting degrees to untested, sometimes illiterate students after less than a year of study, to the modern conception of medical schools, heavily regulated and having extensive entrance requirements, and organized curricula requiring four years of study.
Ludmerer particularly identifies the American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ; the other 25...
as a transformative event, as the poor training of medical personnel in that era lead to many more deaths from disease than occurred in battle. Ludmerer criticizes the view that the Flexner Report
Flexner Report
The Flexner Report is a book-length study of medical education in the United States and Canada, written by the professional educator Abraham Flexner and published in 1910 under the aegis of the Carnegie Foundation...
spurred the advancement of medical education, crediting the report for spurring the closure of substandard medical schools, but noting that most of the innovations recommended by Abraham Flexner
Abraham Flexner
Abraham Flexner was an American educator. His Flexner Report, published in 1910, reformed medical education in the United States...
had already been initiated by the better schools by the time the report was written.
Ludmerer's third book, Time to Heal: American Medical Education from the Turn of the Century to the Era of Managed Care, was published by Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press
Oxford University Press is the largest university press in the world. It is a department of the University of Oxford and is governed by a group of 15 academics appointed by the Vice-Chancellor known as the Delegates of the Press. They are headed by the Secretary to the Delegates, who serves as...
in 1999. It is essentially a sequel
Sequel
A sequel is a narrative, documental, or other work of literature, film, theatre, or music that continues the story of or expands upon issues presented in some previous work...
to Learning to Heal, using the same narrative style to address in detail the developments in medical education over the twentieth century, and particularly from the 1920s through the 1990s.
Recognition
Ludmerer has won a number of awards for his scholarly contributions. He received the Nicholas E. Davies Memorial Award from the American College of Physicians in 1997, the Distinguished Alumnus Award of Johns Hopkins University in 2000 and the Daniel Tosteson Award for Leadership and Medical Education from Harvard Medical School in 2001. He was elected to the American Academy of Arts and SciencesAmerican Academy of Arts and Sciences
The American Academy of Arts and Sciences is an independent policy research center that conducts multidisciplinary studies of complex and emerging problems. The Academy’s elected members are leaders in the academic disciplines, the arts, business, and public affairs.James Bowdoin, John Adams, and...
in the spring of 2002, and, although Ludmerer himself minimized the importance of the Flexner Report, he was selected by the Association of American Medical Colleges
Association of American Medical Colleges
The Association of American Medical Colleges is a non-profit organization based in Washington, DC and established in 1876. It administers the Medical College Admission Test...
to receive the "Abraham Flexner Award" for distinguished service to medical education in 2003.
Tobacco company testimony
In 2000, Ludmerer came under some criticism when it was learned that he received over half a million dollars over a fifteen-year period to testifyTestimony
In law and in religion, testimony is a solemn attestation as to the truth of a matter. All testimonies should be well thought out and truthful. It was the custom in Ancient Rome for the men to place their right hand on a Bible when taking an oath...
as an expert witness
Expert witness
An expert witness, professional witness or judicial expert is a witness, who by virtue of education, training, skill, or experience, is believed to have expertise and specialised knowledge in a particular subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially and legally...
on medical history on behalf of tobacco companies. Ludmerer testified that, in his opinion, the companies could not have known of certain harmful effects of tobacco before the 1950s, although critics contend that earlier studies did suggest those effects.
Books
- Genetics and the American Society: A Historical Appraisal (November 1, 1972) .
- Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (January 1, 1985).
- Time to Heal: American Medical Education from the Turn of the Century to the Era of Managed Care (January 27, 2005).