Kam–Sui languages
Encyclopedia
The Kam–Sui languages are a branch of the Tai–Kadai languages spoken by the Kam–Sui peoples. They are spoken mainly in eastern Guizhou
, western Hunan
, and northern Guangxi
in southern China
. Small pockets of Kam–Sui speakers are also found in northern Vietnam
and Laos
.
and Biao
languages are sometimes separated out as a sister branch to Kam–Sui within a "Be–Kam–Tai" branch of Kradai, but this is not well supported. Otherwise the languages are not subclassified.
The better known Kam–Sui languages are Dong
(Kam), with over a million speakers, Mulam
, Maonan
, and Sui
. Other Kam–Sui languages include Ai-Cham, Mak
, and T’en, and Chadong
, which is the most recently discovered Kam–Sui language. Ethnologue
also lists Kang (Tai Khang), which is spoken in Laos
and Yunnan
in China
, as a Kam–Sui language.
Graham Thurgood
(1988) presents the following tentative classification for the Kam–Sui branch. Chadong
, a language which has only been recently described by Chinese linguist Jinfang Li, is also included below. It is most closely related to Maonan
.
Biao
and Lakkja
, which are of uncertain classification, may be the closest relatives of the Kam–Sui branch; Biao may even be a divergent Kam–Sui language.
(Dong) and Qiannan
(Sui, Then, Mak, Ai-Cham) Prefectures of Guizhou
, as well as the prefecture-level cities
of Hechi
(Mulam and Maonan) and Guilin
(Chadong) in northern Guangxi
. Many Kam–Sui speakers have also migrated to farther urban areas such as Guangzhou
.
The four largest Kam–Sui ethnic groups, the Dong, Shui, Mulao, and Maonan, are officially recognized by the Chinese government. Non-recognized Kam–Sui ethnic groups (Chadong, Then, Mak, Ai-Cham) who can still speak their own languages number less than 50,000.
Guizhou
' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :...
, western Hunan
Hunan
' is a province of South-Central China, located to the south of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and south of Lake Dongting...
, and northern Guangxi
Guangxi
Guangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
in southern China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
. Small pockets of Kam–Sui speakers are also found in northern Vietnam
Northern Vietnam
For the former country, see North VietnamNorthern Vietnam is one of the three regions within Vietnam ....
and Laos
Laos
Laos Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west...
.
Classification
Kam–Sui includes a dozen languages. The LakkjaLakkja language
The Lakkja language is a Tai–Kadai language spoken in Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County, Laibin 来宾, east-central Guangxi, China. Lakkja people are also known as the Chashan Yao, or Tea Mountain Yao, since they were traditionally considered by neighboring peoples to be a Miao–Yao people. The name...
and Biao
Biao language
The Biao language is a Tai–Kadai language spoken in southwestern Huaiji County and Fengkai County, Zhaoqing, Guangdong. Variants of Biao include the Shidong 诗洞, Yonggu 永固, Qiaotou 桥头, and Dagang 大岗 dialects...
languages are sometimes separated out as a sister branch to Kam–Sui within a "Be–Kam–Tai" branch of Kradai, but this is not well supported. Otherwise the languages are not subclassified.
The better known Kam–Sui languages are Dong
Dong language
The Kam language, also known as Gam , or in Chinese, Dong or Tung-Chia, is the language of the Dong people...
(Kam), with over a million speakers, Mulam
Mulao
The Mulao people are an ethnic group. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. In their name, Mulam, mu6 is a classifier for human beings and lam1 is another form of the name used by the Dong , to whom the Mulam people are ethnically related...
, Maonan
Maonan
The Maonan people are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. There are a total of 107,166 Maonan, mostly living northern Guangxi province in southern China....
, and Sui
Sui language
The Sui language is a Tai–Kadai language spoken by the Sui people of Guizhou province, China. According to Ethnologue, the total number of speakers is around 200,000 as of 1999. Sui is also unique for its rich inventory of consonants, with the Sandong dialect having as many as 70 consonants...
. Other Kam–Sui languages include Ai-Cham, Mak
Mak language
The Mak language is a Kam–Sui language spoken in Libo County, Qiannan Prefecture, Guizhou, China. It is spoken mainly in the four townships of Yangfeng, Fangcun, Jialian, and Diwo in Jialiang District, Libo County. Mak speakers can also be found in Dushan County...
, and T’en, and Chadong
Chadong language
The Chadong language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Chadong Township, Lingui County, Guilin, northeastern Guangxi, China. It is most closely related to the Maonan language...
, which is the most recently discovered Kam–Sui language. Ethnologue
Ethnologue
Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a web and print publication of SIL International , a Christian linguistic service organization, which studies lesser-known languages, to provide the speakers with Bibles in their native language and support their efforts in language development.The Ethnologue...
also lists Kang (Tai Khang), which is spoken in Laos
Laos
Laos Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west...
and Yunnan
Yunnan
Yunnan is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the far southwest of the country spanning approximately and with a population of 45.7 million . The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders Burma, Laos, and Vietnam.Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with...
in China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, as a Kam–Sui language.
Graham Thurgood
Graham Thurgood
Graham Thurgood is a professor at California State University, Chico. Thurgood is well known for his reconstruction of Proto-Chamic and his studies on tonogenesis in Hainan Cham. He also specializes in Tai–Kadai and Tibeto-Burman linguistics.-Publications:...
(1988) presents the following tentative classification for the Kam–Sui branch. Chadong
Chadong language
The Chadong language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Chadong Township, Lingui County, Guilin, northeastern Guangxi, China. It is most closely related to the Maonan language...
, a language which has only been recently described by Chinese linguist Jinfang Li, is also included below. It is most closely related to Maonan
Maonan language
The Maonan language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County, Hechi, northern Guangxi by the Maonan people.-Demographics:...
.
Biao
Biao language
The Biao language is a Tai–Kadai language spoken in southwestern Huaiji County and Fengkai County, Zhaoqing, Guangdong. Variants of Biao include the Shidong 诗洞, Yonggu 永固, Qiaotou 桥头, and Dagang 大岗 dialects...
and Lakkja
Lakkja language
The Lakkja language is a Tai–Kadai language spoken in Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County, Laibin 来宾, east-central Guangxi, China. Lakkja people are also known as the Chashan Yao, or Tea Mountain Yao, since they were traditionally considered by neighboring peoples to be a Miao–Yao people. The name...
, which are of uncertain classification, may be the closest relatives of the Kam–Sui branch; Biao may even be a divergent Kam–Sui language.
Demographics
Nearly all speakers of Kam–Sui languages originate in the QiandongnanQiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture
Qiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture of Guizhou province in the People's Republic of China. The seat of the prefecture is Kaili...
(Dong) and Qiannan
Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture
Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture of Guizhou province in the People's Republic of China. The capital of the prefecture is Duyun...
(Sui, Then, Mak, Ai-Cham) Prefectures of Guizhou
Guizhou
' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :...
, as well as the prefecture-level cities
Prefecture-level city
A prefectural level city , prefectural city or prefectural level municipality is an administrative division of the People's Republic of China, ranking below a province and above a county in China's administrative structure. Prefectural level cities form the second level of the administrative...
of Hechi
Hechi
-Administration:Hechi has 1 urban district, 1 city, 4 counties, and 5 autonomous counties.City:*Yizhou Urban District:*Jinchengjiang District Counties:*Nandan County -Administration:Hechi has 1 urban district, 1 city, 4 counties, and 5 autonomous counties.City:*Yizhou (宜州市)Urban...
(Mulam and Maonan) and Guilin
Guilin
Guilin is a prefecture-level city in the northeast of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of far southern China, sitting on the west bank of the Li River. Its name means "forest of Sweet Osmanthus", owing to the large number of fragrant Sweet Osmanthus trees located in the city...
(Chadong) in northern Guangxi
Guangxi
Guangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
. Many Kam–Sui speakers have also migrated to farther urban areas such as Guangzhou
Guangzhou
Guangzhou , known historically as Canton or Kwangchow, is the capital and largest city of the Guangdong province in the People's Republic of China. Located in southern China on the Pearl River, about north-northwest of Hong Kong, Guangzhou is a key national transportation hub and trading port...
.
By language
- MulamMulam languageThe Mulam language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Luocheng County, Hechi, northern Guangxi by the Mulao people. The greatest concentrations are in Dongmen and Siba communes. Their autonym is mu6 lam1...
佬 – Luocheng Mulao Autonomous CountyLuocheng Mulao Autonomous CountyLuocheng Mulao Autonomous County is a county of Guangxi, China. It is under the administration of Hechi city....
罗城仫佬族自治县, HechiHechi-Administration:Hechi has 1 urban district, 1 city, 4 counties, and 5 autonomous counties.City:*Yizhou Urban District:*Jinchengjiang District Counties:*Nandan County -Administration:Hechi has 1 urban district, 1 city, 4 counties, and 5 autonomous counties.City:*Yizhou (宜州市)Urban...
, northern GuangxiGuangxiGuangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
; Qiandongnan PrefectureQiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous PrefectureQiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture of Guizhou province in the People's Republic of China. The seat of the prefecture is Kaili...
, southeastern GuizhouGuizhou' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :... - Dong 侗 – Qiandongnan PrefectureQiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous PrefectureQiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture of Guizhou province in the People's Republic of China. The seat of the prefecture is Kaili...
, southeastern GuizhouGuizhou' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :... - ThenThen languageThe Then language is a Kam–Sui language spoken in Pingtang County, southern Guizhou.-References:* 薄文泽 / Bo, Wenze. 1997. 佯僙语研究 / Yanghuang yu yan jiu . Beijing: 中央民族大学出版社 / Zhong yang min zu da xue chu ban she.-External links:...
佯僙/佯爷 – Pingtang CountyPingtang CountyPingtang County is a county in the Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture of Guizhou, in southwest China. It is a high mountain valley and is inhabited mainly by members of the Buyei and Miao ethnic minorities, who together make up 55% of the county's population.The county's area is 2,816...
平塘县, Qiannan PrefectureQiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous PrefectureQiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture of Guizhou province in the People's Republic of China. The capital of the prefecture is Duyun...
, southern GuizhouGuizhou' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :... - MaonanMaonan languageThe Maonan language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County, Hechi, northern Guangxi by the Maonan people.-Demographics:...
毛南 – Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous CountyHuanjiang Maonan Autonomous CountyHuanjiang Maonan Autonomous County is a county of Guangxi, China. It is under the administration of Hechi city....
环江毛南族自治县, HechiHechi-Administration:Hechi has 1 urban district, 1 city, 4 counties, and 5 autonomous counties.City:*Yizhou Urban District:*Jinchengjiang District Counties:*Nandan County -Administration:Hechi has 1 urban district, 1 city, 4 counties, and 5 autonomous counties.City:*Yizhou (宜州市)Urban...
, northern GuangxiGuangxiGuangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in... - ChadongChadong languageThe Chadong language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Chadong Township, Lingui County, Guilin, northeastern Guangxi, China. It is most closely related to the Maonan language...
茶洞 – Chadong Township, Lingui CountyLingui CountyLingui County is a county administered by Guilin, Guangxi, China, and located midway between Guilin and Yangshuo. The county is mostly rural and hilly, marked by the same dramatic karst topography for which Guilin is famous.-History:...
临桂县, GuilinGuilinGuilin is a prefecture-level city in the northeast of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of far southern China, sitting on the west bank of the Li River. Its name means "forest of Sweet Osmanthus", owing to the large number of fragrant Sweet Osmanthus trees located in the city...
, northeastern GuangxiGuangxiGuangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in... - SuiSui languageThe Sui language is a Tai–Kadai language spoken by the Sui people of Guizhou province, China. According to Ethnologue, the total number of speakers is around 200,000 as of 1999. Sui is also unique for its rich inventory of consonants, with the Sandong dialect having as many as 70 consonants...
水 – Sandu Shui Autonomous CountySandu Shui Autonomous CountySandu Shui Autonomous County is a county of Guizhou, China. It is under the administration of the Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture....
黔南布依族苗族自治州, Qiannan PrefectureQiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous PrefectureQiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture of Guizhou province in the People's Republic of China. The capital of the prefecture is Duyun...
, southern GuizhouGuizhou' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :... - MakMak languageThe Mak language is a Kam–Sui language spoken in Libo County, Qiannan Prefecture, Guizhou, China. It is spoken mainly in the four townships of Yangfeng, Fangcun, Jialian, and Diwo in Jialiang District, Libo County. Mak speakers can also be found in Dushan County...
莫 – Libo CountyLibo CountyLibo County is a county of Guizhou, China. It is under the administration of the Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture.-Geography:The county is located in the remote southeastern corner of the prefecture, on the border with Guangxi...
荔波县, Qiannan PrefectureQiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous PrefectureQiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture of Guizhou province in the People's Republic of China. The capital of the prefecture is Duyun...
, southern GuizhouGuizhou' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :... - Ai-Cham 锦 – Libo CountyLibo CountyLibo County is a county of Guizhou, China. It is under the administration of the Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture.-Geography:The county is located in the remote southeastern corner of the prefecture, on the border with Guangxi...
荔波县, Qiannan PrefectureQiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous PrefectureQiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture of Guizhou province in the People's Republic of China. The capital of the prefecture is Duyun...
, southern GuizhouGuizhou' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :...
By location
(Listed counterclockwise)- GuizhouGuizhou' is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the southwestern part of the country. Its provincial capital city is Guiyang.- History :...
- QiandongnanQiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous PrefectureQiandongnan Miao and Dong Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture of Guizhou province in the People's Republic of China. The seat of the prefecture is Kaili...
– Dong; 1,500,000 speakers - QiannanQiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous PrefectureQiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture is an autonomous prefecture of Guizhou province in the People's Republic of China. The capital of the prefecture is Duyun...
- Sandu CountySandu Shui Autonomous CountySandu Shui Autonomous County is a county of Guizhou, China. It is under the administration of the Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture....
– SuiSui languageThe Sui language is a Tai–Kadai language spoken by the Sui people of Guizhou province, China. According to Ethnologue, the total number of speakers is around 200,000 as of 1999. Sui is also unique for its rich inventory of consonants, with the Sandong dialect having as many as 70 consonants...
; 300,000 speakers - Pingtang CountyPingtang CountyPingtang County is a county in the Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture of Guizhou, in southwest China. It is a high mountain valley and is inhabited mainly by members of the Buyei and Miao ethnic minorities, who together make up 55% of the county's population.The county's area is 2,816...
– ThenThen languageThe Then language is a Kam–Sui language spoken in Pingtang County, southern Guizhou.-References:* 薄文泽 / Bo, Wenze. 1997. 佯僙语研究 / Yanghuang yu yan jiu . Beijing: 中央民族大学出版社 / Zhong yang min zu da xue chu ban she.-External links:...
; 15,000 speakers - Libo CountyLibo CountyLibo County is a county of Guizhou, China. It is under the administration of the Qiannan Buyei and Miao Autonomous Prefecture.-Geography:The county is located in the remote southeastern corner of the prefecture, on the border with Guangxi...
– MakMak languageThe Mak language is a Kam–Sui language spoken in Libo County, Qiannan Prefecture, Guizhou, China. It is spoken mainly in the four townships of Yangfeng, Fangcun, Jialian, and Diwo in Jialiang District, Libo County. Mak speakers can also be found in Dushan County...
and Ai-Cham; 10,000 and 2,700 speakers
- Sandu County
- Qiandongnan
- GuangxiGuangxiGuangxi, formerly romanized Kwangsi, is a province of southern China along its border with Vietnam. In 1958, it became the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, a region with special privileges created specifically for the Zhuang people.Guangxi's location, in...
- HechiHechi-Administration:Hechi has 1 urban district, 1 city, 4 counties, and 5 autonomous counties.City:*Yizhou Urban District:*Jinchengjiang District Counties:*Nandan County -Administration:Hechi has 1 urban district, 1 city, 4 counties, and 5 autonomous counties.City:*Yizhou (宜州市)Urban...
- Luocheng CountyLuocheng Mulao Autonomous CountyLuocheng Mulao Autonomous County is a county of Guangxi, China. It is under the administration of Hechi city....
– MulamMulam languageThe Mulam language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Luocheng County, Hechi, northern Guangxi by the Mulao people. The greatest concentrations are in Dongmen and Siba communes. Their autonym is mu6 lam1...
; 86,000 speakers - Huanjiang CountyHuanjiang Maonan Autonomous CountyHuanjiang Maonan Autonomous County is a county of Guangxi, China. It is under the administration of Hechi city....
– MaonanMaonan languageThe Maonan language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County, Hechi, northern Guangxi by the Maonan people.-Demographics:...
; 30,000 speakers
- Luocheng County
- GuilinGuilinGuilin is a prefecture-level city in the northeast of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region of far southern China, sitting on the west bank of the Li River. Its name means "forest of Sweet Osmanthus", owing to the large number of fragrant Sweet Osmanthus trees located in the city...
(Lingui CountyLingui CountyLingui County is a county administered by Guilin, Guangxi, China, and located midway between Guilin and Yangshuo. The county is mostly rural and hilly, marked by the same dramatic karst topography for which Guilin is famous.-History:...
) – ChadongChadong languageThe Chadong language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Chadong Township, Lingui County, Guilin, northeastern Guangxi, China. It is most closely related to the Maonan language...
; 20,000 speakers
- Hechi
By population
There is a total of about 2 million Kam–Sui speakers.The four largest Kam–Sui ethnic groups, the Dong, Shui, Mulao, and Maonan, are officially recognized by the Chinese government. Non-recognized Kam–Sui ethnic groups (Chadong, Then, Mak, Ai-Cham) who can still speak their own languages number less than 50,000.
- Dong: about 1,500,000 speakers; 1.7 million in 1995
- SuiSui languageThe Sui language is a Tai–Kadai language spoken by the Sui people of Guizhou province, China. According to Ethnologue, the total number of speakers is around 200,000 as of 1999. Sui is also unique for its rich inventory of consonants, with the Sandong dialect having as many as 70 consonants...
: 300,000 speakers - MulamMulam languageThe Mulam language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Luocheng County, Hechi, northern Guangxi by the Mulao people. The greatest concentrations are in Dongmen and Siba communes. Their autonym is mu6 lam1...
: 86,000 speakers (ethnic population: 200,000) - MaonanMaonan languageThe Maonan language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Huanjiang Maonan Autonomous County, Hechi, northern Guangxi by the Maonan people.-Demographics:...
: 30,000 speakers (ethnic population: 100,000) - ChadongChadong languageThe Chadong language is a Kam–Sui language spoken mainly in Chadong Township, Lingui County, Guilin, northeastern Guangxi, China. It is most closely related to the Maonan language...
: 20,000 speakers - ThenThen languageThe Then language is a Kam–Sui language spoken in Pingtang County, southern Guizhou.-References:* 薄文泽 / Bo, Wenze. 1997. 佯僙语研究 / Yanghuang yu yan jiu . Beijing: 中央民族大学出版社 / Zhong yang min zu da xue chu ban she.-External links:...
: 15,000 speakers - MakMak languageThe Mak language is a Kam–Sui language spoken in Libo County, Qiannan Prefecture, Guizhou, China. It is spoken mainly in the four townships of Yangfeng, Fangcun, Jialian, and Diwo in Jialiang District, Libo County. Mak speakers can also be found in Dushan County...
: 10,000 speakers - Ai-Cham: 2,700 speakers
Reconstruction
A preliminary of reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui had been undertaken by Graham Thurgood.Further reading
- Tai–Kadai Languages. (2007). Curzon Pr. ISBN 9780700714575
- Diller, A. (2005). The Tai–Kadai languages. London [etc.]: Routledge. ISBN 070071457X
- Edmondson, J. A., & Solnit, D. B. (1988). Comparative Kadai: linguistic studies beyond Tai. Summer Institute of Linguistics publications in linguistics, no. 86. [Arlington, Tex.]: Summer Institute of Linguistics. ISBN 0883120666
- Thurgood, Graham. 1988. "Notes on the reconstruction of Proto-Kam–Sui." In Jerold A. Edmondson and David B. Solnit (eds.), Comparative Kadai: Linguistic studies beyond Tai, 179-218. Summer Institute of Linguistics Publications in Linguistics, 86. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington.