Judith N. Shklar
Encyclopedia
Judith Nisse Shklar was a political theorist, and the John Cowles Professor of Government at Harvard University
.
, Latvia
to Jewish parents who fled the Soviet Union
when she was thirteen. She graduated from McGill University
and received B.A and M.A. degrees in 1949 and 1950. She received her Ph.D degree from Harvard University
in 1955.
After graduation, Shklar became a faculty member at Harvard University and spent her entire academic career there. She was the first tenured woman in Harvard's Government Department. She was also president of the American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy
and president of the American Political Science Association
.
She was a renowned teacher and advisor, and many of her former students contributed to a volume of essays on her thought, Liberalism Without Illusions, edited by Bernard Yack
.
is the greatest evil
, which she touches on in her essay "The Liberalism of Fear" and elaborates more fully in Putting Cruelty First, an essay in Ordinary Vices, and her idea of "liberalism of fear." The "liberalism of fear" is based on her view that cruelty is the greatest evil and that governments are prone to abuse the "inevitable inequalities in power" that result from political organization. Based on these views she advocates constitutional democracy, which is flawed, but still the best form of government possible, because it protects people from the abuses of the more powerful by restricting government and by dispersing power among a "multiplicity of politically active groups" (The Liberalism of Fear).
She stated that "Every adult should be able to make as many effective decisions without fear or favor about as many aspects of his or her life as is compatible with the like freedom of every adult." and that this "is the original and only defensible meaning of liberalism
." (Judith Shklar, The Liberalism of Fear)
She described rights less as absolute moral liberties and more as licenses which citizens must have in order to protect themselves against abuse.
Shklar was deeply interested in injustice and political evils. She claimed that "philosophy fails to give injustice its due," that is, most past philosophers have ignored injustice
and talked only about justice
, likewise they have ignored vice
and only talked about virtue
. In Ordinary Vices and The Faces of Injustice Shklar attempts to fill this gap in philosophical thought, drawing heavily on literature
as well as philosophy
to argue that injustice and the "sense of injustice" are historically and culturally universal, and are very important for modern political and philosophical theory.
including:
Several of her essays, including the classic 'The Liberalism of Fear', have been collected in two posthumous volumes from the University of Chicago Press
, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, edited by Stanley Hoffmann (1998), and Redeeming American Political Thought.
Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation chartered in the country...
.
Biography
Judith Shklar was born in RigaRiga
Riga is the capital and largest city of Latvia. With 702,891 inhabitants Riga is the largest city of the Baltic states, one of the largest cities in Northern Europe and home to more than one third of Latvia's population. The city is an important seaport and a major industrial, commercial,...
, Latvia
Latvia
Latvia , officially the Republic of Latvia , is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia , to the south by Lithuania , to the east by the Russian Federation , to the southeast by Belarus and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden...
to Jewish parents who fled the Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
when she was thirteen. She graduated from McGill University
McGill University
Mohammed Fathy is a public research university located in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The university bears the name of James McGill, a prominent Montreal merchant from Glasgow, Scotland, whose bequest formed the beginning of the university...
and received B.A and M.A. degrees in 1949 and 1950. She received her Ph.D degree from Harvard University
Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation chartered in the country...
in 1955.
After graduation, Shklar became a faculty member at Harvard University and spent her entire academic career there. She was the first tenured woman in Harvard's Government Department. She was also president of the American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy
American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy
The American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy, or ASPLP, is a learned society founded in 1955 by political theorist Carl Friedrich. The ASPLP's annual thematic conferences form the foundation for the Nomos series. The ASPLP operates according to a distinctive three-discipline structure...
and president of the American Political Science Association
American Political Science Association
The American Political Science Association is a professional association of political science students and scholars in the United States. Founded in 1903, it publishes three academic journals...
.
She was a renowned teacher and advisor, and many of her former students contributed to a volume of essays on her thought, Liberalism Without Illusions, edited by Bernard Yack
Bernard Yack
Bernard Yack is a Canadian born American political theorist.He received his B.A. from the University of Toronto and his Ph.D. from Harvard University, where he was a student of Judith Shklar...
.
Views
Shklar's thought centered on two main ideas: that crueltyCruelty
Cruelty can be described as indifference to suffering, and even positive pleasure in inflicting it. If this is supported by a legal or social framework, then receives the name of perversion. Sadism can also be related to this form of action or concept....
is the greatest evil
Evil
Evil is the violation of, or intent to violate, some moral code. Evil is usually seen as the dualistic opposite of good. Definitions of evil vary along with analysis of its root motive causes, however general actions commonly considered evil include: conscious and deliberate wrongdoing,...
, which she touches on in her essay "The Liberalism of Fear" and elaborates more fully in Putting Cruelty First, an essay in Ordinary Vices, and her idea of "liberalism of fear." The "liberalism of fear" is based on her view that cruelty is the greatest evil and that governments are prone to abuse the "inevitable inequalities in power" that result from political organization. Based on these views she advocates constitutional democracy, which is flawed, but still the best form of government possible, because it protects people from the abuses of the more powerful by restricting government and by dispersing power among a "multiplicity of politically active groups" (The Liberalism of Fear).
She stated that "Every adult should be able to make as many effective decisions without fear or favor about as many aspects of his or her life as is compatible with the like freedom of every adult." and that this "is the original and only defensible meaning of liberalism
Liberalism
Liberalism is the belief in the importance of liberty and equal rights. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but generally, liberals support ideas such as constitutionalism, liberal democracy, free and fair elections, human rights,...
." (Judith Shklar, The Liberalism of Fear)
She described rights less as absolute moral liberties and more as licenses which citizens must have in order to protect themselves against abuse.
Shklar was deeply interested in injustice and political evils. She claimed that "philosophy fails to give injustice its due," that is, most past philosophers have ignored injustice
Injustice
Injustice is the lack of or opposition to justice, either in reference to a particular event or act, or as a larger status quo. The term generally refers to misuse, abuse, neglect, or malfeasance that is uncorrected or else sanctioned by a legal system. Misuse and abuse with regard to a particular...
and talked only about justice
Justice
Justice is a concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, religion, or equity, along with the punishment of the breach of said ethics; justice is the act of being just and/or fair.-Concept of justice:...
, likewise they have ignored vice
Vice
Vice is a practice or a behavior or habit considered immoral, depraved, or degrading in the associated society. In more minor usage, vice can refer to a fault, a defect, an infirmity, or merely a bad habit. Synonyms for vice include fault, depravity, sin, iniquity, wickedness, and corruption...
and only talked about virtue
Virtue
Virtue is moral excellence. A virtue is a positive trait or quality subjectively deemed to be morally excellent and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being....
. In Ordinary Vices and The Faces of Injustice Shklar attempts to fill this gap in philosophical thought, drawing heavily on literature
Literature
Literature is the art of written works, and is not bound to published sources...
as well as philosophy
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. Philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing such problems by its critical, generally systematic approach and its reliance on rational...
to argue that injustice and the "sense of injustice" are historically and culturally universal, and are very important for modern political and philosophical theory.
Works
Professor Shklar wrote many influential books and articles on political sciencePolitical science
Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...
including:
- After UtopiaUtopiaUtopia is an ideal community or society possessing a perfect socio-politico-legal system. The word was imported from Greek by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book Utopia, describing a fictional island in the Atlantic Ocean. The term has been used to describe both intentional communities that attempt...
: The Decline of Political Faith (1957) - LegalismLegalism (Western philosophy)Legalism, in the Western sense, is an approach to the analysis of legal questions characterized by abstract logical reasoning focusing on the applicable legal text, such as a constitution, legislation, or case law, rather than on the social, economic, or political context...
: Law, Morals, and Political Trials (Harvard University PressHarvard University PressHarvard University Press is a publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University, and focused on academic publishing. In 2005, it published 220 new titles. It is a member of the Association of American University Presses. Its current director is William P...
, 1964, ISBN 0-674-52351-2) - Men and Citizens: A Study of Rousseau's Social Theory (1969)
- Freedom and Independence: A Study of the Political Ideas of Hegel's Phenomenology of Mind (1976)
- Ordinary Vices (1984)--A collection of 6 essays on the ordinary vices of crueltyCrueltyCruelty can be described as indifference to suffering, and even positive pleasure in inflicting it. If this is supported by a legal or social framework, then receives the name of perversion. Sadism can also be related to this form of action or concept....
, hypocrisyHypocrisyHypocrisy is the state of pretending to have virtues, moral or religious beliefs, principles, etc., that one does not actually have. Hypocrisy involves the deception of others and is thus a kind of lie....
, snobbery, betrayalBetrayalBetrayal is the breaking or violation of a presumptive contract, trust, or confidence that produces moral and psychological conflict within a relationship amongst individuals, between organizations or between individuals and organizations...
, and misanthropyMisanthropyMisanthropy is generalized dislike, distrust, disgust, contempt or hatred of the human species or human nature. A misanthrope, or misanthropist is someone who holds such views or feelings...
. - The Faces of Injustice (1990)--Three essays on injusticeInjusticeInjustice is the lack of or opposition to justice, either in reference to a particular event or act, or as a larger status quo. The term generally refers to misuse, abuse, neglect, or malfeasance that is uncorrected or else sanctioned by a legal system. Misuse and abuse with regard to a particular...
: "Giving Injustice Its Due," "Misfortune and Injustice," and "The Sense of Injustice." - American Citizenship: The Quest for Inclusion (1991).
Several of her essays, including the classic 'The Liberalism of Fear', have been collected in two posthumous volumes from the University of Chicago Press
University of Chicago Press
The University of Chicago Press is the largest university press in the United States. It is operated by the University of Chicago and publishes a wide variety of academic titles, including The Chicago Manual of Style, dozens of academic journals, including Critical Inquiry, and a wide array of...
, Political Thought and Political Thinkers, edited by Stanley Hoffmann (1998), and Redeeming American Political Thought.