Homosocial
Encyclopedia
In sociology
, homosociality describes same-sex relationships that are not of a romantic or sexual nature, such as friendship
, mentorship
, or others. The opposite of homosocial is heterosocial
, preferring non-sexual relations with the opposite sex. In group relations involving more than two individuals, the relation can be either homosocial (involving same-sex social relations) or bisocial involving social relation with both sexes.
'A term referring to social bonds between persons of the same sex, homosocial was popularized by Eve Sedgwick in her discussion of male homosocial desire. Jean Lipman-Blumen
had earlier (1976) defined homosociality as a preference for members of one's own sex - a social rather than a sexual preference'.
Depending on the culture, and family and social stuctures, same-sex preferences have been found to develop between 3 and 9 years old. (LaFreniere, Strayer,& Gauthier, 1984; Jacklin& Maccoby, 1978; Harkness & Super, 1985) LaFreniere, Strayer, and Gauthier (1984) conducted a three year long study observing fifteen peer groups between the ages of 1 to 6 years old, 98 boys and 93 girls. As they looked into sex-segregation in childhood, the researchers found that segregation rose with age and that most Western children exihibit these preferences around 3-4 years old. However, in a study by Harkenss and Super, Kenyan children were not found to have sex-preference in playmates until the ages of 6 to 9 years old. Researchers observed 152 Kenyan children in rural settings and found that this change didn’t occur until parental expectations and customary duties increased. “Just when and how such gender segration appears, is the joint product of the individual and the culturally constructed niche” (Harkness & Super, 1985).
It appears that the social bias towards members of one’s own sex can develop early in children. Specifically, studies have found that by the early age of 3 or 4, children prefer members of their own sex to members of the opposite sex (Bussey & Bandura, 1992). That is, young girls favor other females (girls and women) over males (boys and men). The findings are identical for young boys. Moreover, a study done by Carol Martin (1989) found that boys 4.5 years of age expressed significantly more dislike for a girl depicted as a “tomboy” than a boy depicted as a “sissy”; whereas boys 8.5 years of age express more dislike for a boy depicted as a “sissy”. This age difference suggests that children as young as 4 prefer their own sex regardless of gender-incongruent behavior. Around the age of 8 however, boys begin to adhere to and appreciate the social expectations for males—devaluing feminine behavior. It has also been shown that children ages 10-12 prefer same-sex socializing. That is, girls favored girls who socialized with other girls and boys liked boys who socialized with other boys.
nor homosexuality
. For example, a heterosexual male who prefers to socialize with men may be considered a homosocial heterosexual. The term is often used by feminists
to emphasize aspects of solidarity between males. Feminists also identify a close link between female homosociality, feminism and lesbian desire, with Audre Lorde
stating "the true feminist deals out of a lesbian consciousness whether or not she ever sleeps with women."
ly life in medieval culture. It is also used for historically largely male occupations such as being a sailor
(for example, historian Marcus Rediker
uses the term to describe the pirate world). Homosocial relationships are not obliged to be sexual relationships, they are merely same-sex social interactions.
Predominantly homosocial arrangements include:
'Generally, the more polarized the gender roles and restrictive the sexual code, the more homosociality one expects to find in a society'
scholars such as Rosabeth Moss Kanter
and Heidi Hartmann
have emphasized the role of male homosociality in perpetuating perceived patterns of male dominance in the workplace. Kantner has explored 'metaphorical "homosocial reproduction" - how men attempt to reproduce their dominant power relations by only uniting with and sharing the same occupational space and privilege with those males' who resemble them - although 'subsequent research has suggested some revisions of Kanter's underlying argument...[re] "homosocial reproduction"'.
has referred to and celebrated as the "lesbian continuum"'.
At the same time, Sedgwick 'defines male homosociality as a form of male bonding with a characteristic triangular structure. In this triangle, men have intense but nonsexual bonds with other men, and women serve as the conduits through which those bonds are expressed'. Sedgwick's analysis of 'the love triangle in which two men appear to be competing for a woman's love...develops Rene Girard
's claim that such a triangle may disguise as rivalry what is actually an attraction between men'. Girard argued that 'the homosexual drift stems logically from the fact that the model/rival is a man', producing at times a 'noticeably increased preponderance of the mediator and a gradual obliteration of the [female] object'.
In perhaps contradictory fashion, research at the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, La Trobe University
has found that mutual identification over heterosexual activity is often the medium through which male homosocial bonding is enacted.
" has recently been used to refer to an especially close homosocial yet non-sexual relationship between two men. Bromance is most often used in the case of two heterosexual partners, although there have been prominent celebrity gay-straight bromances (also known as homomances or hobromances). The female equivalent is a womance
.
seem to offer a single, discursive, deeply felt narrative of the dangers and vicissitudes of one male homosocial adventure'.
Sociology
Sociology is the study of society. It is a social science—a term with which it is sometimes synonymous—which uses various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to develop a body of knowledge about human social activity...
, homosociality describes same-sex relationships that are not of a romantic or sexual nature, such as friendship
Friendship
Friendship is a form of interpersonal relationship generally considered to be closer than association, although there is a range of degrees of intimacy in both friendships and associations. Friendship and association are often thought of as spanning across the same continuum...
, mentorship
Mentorship
Mentorship refers to a personal developmental relationship in which a more experienced or more knowledgeable person helps a less experienced or less knowledgeable person....
, or others. The opposite of homosocial is heterosocial
Heterosociality
Heterosociality describes social relations with persons of the opposite sex or preference for such relations, often excluding relationships of a romantic or sexual nature. The opposite is homosociality, preferring relations of those with the same sex. Unlike homosociality, due to the nature,...
, preferring non-sexual relations with the opposite sex. In group relations involving more than two individuals, the relation can be either homosocial (involving same-sex social relations) or bisocial involving social relation with both sexes.
'A term referring to social bonds between persons of the same sex, homosocial was popularized by Eve Sedgwick in her discussion of male homosocial desire. Jean Lipman-Blumen
Jean Lipman-Blumen
Dr. Jean Lipman-Blumen is the Thornton F. Bradhshaw Professor of Public Policy and Professor of Organizational Behavior at Claremont Graduate University in Claremont, California. She is an expert on leadership, achieving styles, crisis management, "hot groups," organizational behavior, and gender...
had earlier (1976) defined homosociality as a preference for members of one's own sex - a social rather than a sexual preference'.
Empirical evidence
In a study presented by Rose, males and females between the ages of 20 and 28 were examined on their evaluations of same and cross-sex friendships. Results showed a preference for same sex relationship in both men and women. Cross-sex relationships were evaluated by men and women to be less helpful, and less loyal than same-sex friendships, and friendship formation was found to be different between cross-sex and same-sex relationships as well.Depending on the culture, and family and social stuctures, same-sex preferences have been found to develop between 3 and 9 years old. (LaFreniere, Strayer,& Gauthier, 1984; Jacklin& Maccoby, 1978; Harkness & Super, 1985) LaFreniere, Strayer, and Gauthier (1984) conducted a three year long study observing fifteen peer groups between the ages of 1 to 6 years old, 98 boys and 93 girls. As they looked into sex-segregation in childhood, the researchers found that segregation rose with age and that most Western children exihibit these preferences around 3-4 years old. However, in a study by Harkenss and Super, Kenyan children were not found to have sex-preference in playmates until the ages of 6 to 9 years old. Researchers observed 152 Kenyan children in rural settings and found that this change didn’t occur until parental expectations and customary duties increased. “Just when and how such gender segration appears, is the joint product of the individual and the culturally constructed niche” (Harkness & Super, 1985).
It appears that the social bias towards members of one’s own sex can develop early in children. Specifically, studies have found that by the early age of 3 or 4, children prefer members of their own sex to members of the opposite sex (Bussey & Bandura, 1992). That is, young girls favor other females (girls and women) over males (boys and men). The findings are identical for young boys. Moreover, a study done by Carol Martin (1989) found that boys 4.5 years of age expressed significantly more dislike for a girl depicted as a “tomboy” than a boy depicted as a “sissy”; whereas boys 8.5 years of age express more dislike for a boy depicted as a “sissy”. This age difference suggests that children as young as 4 prefer their own sex regardless of gender-incongruent behavior. Around the age of 8 however, boys begin to adhere to and appreciate the social expectations for males—devaluing feminine behavior. It has also been shown that children ages 10-12 prefer same-sex socializing. That is, girls favored girls who socialized with other girls and boys liked boys who socialized with other boys.
Sexual orientation
Homosociality, by definition, implies neither heterosexualityHeterosexuality
Heterosexuality is romantic or sexual attraction or behavior between members of the opposite sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, heterosexuality refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, physical or romantic attractions to persons of the opposite sex";...
nor homosexuality
Homosexuality
Homosexuality is romantic or sexual attraction or behavior between members of the same sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, homosexuality refers to "an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, affectional, or romantic attractions" primarily or exclusively to people of the same...
. For example, a heterosexual male who prefers to socialize with men may be considered a homosocial heterosexual. The term is often used by feminists
Feminism
Feminism is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women. Its concepts overlap with those of women's rights...
to emphasize aspects of solidarity between males. Feminists also identify a close link between female homosociality, feminism and lesbian desire, with Audre Lorde
Audre Lorde
Audre Lorde was a Caribbean-American writer, poet and activist.-Life:...
stating "the true feminist deals out of a lesbian consciousness whether or not she ever sleeps with women."
Historical uses
Homosociality is a term sometimes used in discussions of the all-male world of knightKnight
A knight was a member of a class of lower nobility in the High Middle Ages.By the Late Middle Ages, the rank had become associated with the ideals of chivalry, a code of conduct for the perfect courtly Christian warrior....
ly life in medieval culture. It is also used for historically largely male occupations such as being a sailor
Sailor
A sailor, mariner, or seaman is a person who navigates water-borne vessels or assists in their operation, maintenance, or service. The term can apply to professional mariners, military personnel, and recreational sailors as well as a plethora of other uses...
(for example, historian Marcus Rediker
Marcus Rediker
Marcus Rediker is an American professor, historian, writer, and activist for a variety of peace and social justice causes. He graduated with a B.A. from Virginia Commonwealth University in 1976 and attended the University of Pennsylvania for graduate study, earning an M.A. and Ph.D. in history...
uses the term to describe the pirate world). Homosocial relationships are not obliged to be sexual relationships, they are merely same-sex social interactions.
Predominantly homosocial arrangements include:
- Single-sex educational institutionsSingle-sex educationSingle-sex education, also known as single-gender education, is the practice of conducting education where male and female students attend separate classes or in separate buildings or schools. The practice was predominant before the mid-twentieth century, particularly in secondary education and...
- Fraternities and sororitiesFraternities and sororitiesFraternities and sororities are fraternal social organizations for undergraduate students. In Latin, the term refers mainly to such organizations at colleges and universities in the United States, although it is also applied to analogous European groups also known as corporations...
- MonasteriesMonkA monk is a person who practices religious asceticism, living either alone or with any number of monks, while always maintaining some degree of physical separation from those not sharing the same purpose...
- MilitaryMilitaryA military is an organization authorized by its greater society to use lethal force, usually including use of weapons, in defending its country by combating actual or perceived threats. The military may have additional functions of use to its greater society, such as advancing a political agenda e.g...
(historically exclusively male, although presently both sexes are accepted in some forces) - PrisonPrisonA prison is a place in which people are physically confined and, usually, deprived of a range of personal freedoms. Imprisonment or incarceration is a legal penalty that may be imposed by the state for the commission of a crime...
s - YeshivotYeshivaYeshiva is a Jewish educational institution that focuses on the study of traditional religious texts, primarily the Talmud and Torah study. Study is usually done through daily shiurim and in study pairs called chavrutas...
- Sports club teams, particularly geared toward single-sex membership or to one unique all-male or all-female sport
- Exclusive male clubs or female clubs
'Generally, the more polarized the gender roles and restrictive the sexual code, the more homosociality one expects to find in a society'
Feminist theory
FeministFeminism
Feminism is a collection of movements aimed at defining, establishing, and defending equal political, economic, and social rights and equal opportunities for women. Its concepts overlap with those of women's rights...
scholars such as Rosabeth Moss Kanter
Rosabeth Moss Kanter
Rosabeth Moss Kanter is a tenured professor in business at Harvard Business School, where she holds the Ernest L. Arbuckle Professorship...
and Heidi Hartmann
Heidi Hartmann
Heidi Hartmann is a pioneering feminist economist and the founder of the Institute for Women's Policy Research , a scientific research organization formed to meet the need for women-centered, public policy research. She is also the organization's president and a Research Professor at the The...
have emphasized the role of male homosociality in perpetuating perceived patterns of male dominance in the workplace. Kantner has explored 'metaphorical "homosocial reproduction" - how men attempt to reproduce their dominant power relations by only uniting with and sharing the same occupational space and privilege with those males' who resemble them - although 'subsequent research has suggested some revisions of Kanter's underlying argument...[re] "homosocial reproduction"'.
Homosocial/sexual
There is further controversy regarding the relationship between homosociality and homosexuality: 'how, if at all, male homosociality is connected to male homosexuality is one of the key questions posed by scholars in the field'. Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick identifies a continuum between homosociality and homosexuality, going as far as correlating feminism and lesbian desire: 'it is precisely this broad spectrum of women's homosocial loyalties that Adrienne RichAdrienne Rich
Adrienne Cecile Rich is an American poet, essayist and feminist. She has been called "one of the most widely read and influential poets of the second half of the 20th century."-Early life:...
has referred to and celebrated as the "lesbian continuum"'.
At the same time, Sedgwick 'defines male homosociality as a form of male bonding with a characteristic triangular structure. In this triangle, men have intense but nonsexual bonds with other men, and women serve as the conduits through which those bonds are expressed'. Sedgwick's analysis of 'the love triangle in which two men appear to be competing for a woman's love...develops Rene Girard
René Girard
René Girard is a French historian, literary critic, and philosopher of social science. His work belongs to the tradition of anthropological philosophy...
's claim that such a triangle may disguise as rivalry what is actually an attraction between men'. Girard argued that 'the homosexual drift stems logically from the fact that the model/rival is a man', producing at times a 'noticeably increased preponderance of the mediator and a gradual obliteration of the [female] object'.
In perhaps contradictory fashion, research at the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society, La Trobe University
La Trobe University
La Trobe University is a multi-campus university in Victoria, Australia. It was established in 1964 by an Act of Parliament to become the third oldest university in the state of Victoria. The main campus of La Trobe is located in the Melbourne suburb of Bundoora; two other major campuses are...
has found that mutual identification over heterosexual activity is often the medium through which male homosocial bonding is enacted.
Bromance
In popular culture, "BromanceBromance
A bromance is a close but non-sexual relationship between two men, a form of homosocial intimacy.-Etymology:Bromance is a portmanteau of the words bro or brother and romance...
" has recently been used to refer to an especially close homosocial yet non-sexual relationship between two men. Bromance is most often used in the case of two heterosexual partners, although there have been prominent celebrity gay-straight bromances (also known as homomances or hobromances). The female equivalent is a womance
Womance
A womance is a close but non-sexual relationship between two women, a form of homosocial intimacy. The word is the female equivalent of a bromance, being a portmanteau of the words woman and romance...
.
Literary explorations
'Eve Sedgwick says, "Shakespeare's SonnetsShakespeare's sonnets
Shakespeare's sonnets are 154 poems in sonnet form written by William Shakespeare, dealing with themes such as the passage of time, love, beauty and mortality. All but two of the poems were first published in a 1609 quarto entitled SHAKE-SPEARES SONNETS.: Never before imprinted. Sonnets 138 and 144...
seem to offer a single, discursive, deeply felt narrative of the dangers and vicissitudes of one male homosocial adventure'.