Gene doping
Encyclopedia
Gene doping is defined by the World Anti-Doping Agency
as "the non-therapeutic use of cell
s, genes
, genetic elements, or of the modulation of gene expression
, having the capacity to improve athletic performance". http://www.wada-ama.org/rtecontent/document/2008_List_En.pdf A complex ethical and philosophical issue is what defines "gene doping", especially in the context of bioethical debates about human enhancement
. The idea stems from research done in the 1970s to treat human diseases by fixing the underlying genes.
An example of gene doping could involve the recreational use of gene therapies
intended to treat muscle-wasting disorders. Other applications include increasing muscle growth, blood production, endurance, oxygen dispersal and pain perception. Many of these chemicals may be indistinguishable from their natural counterparts. In such cases, nothing unusual would enter the bloodstream so officials would detect nothing in a blood
or urine test. Other more invasive tests would still most likely be unable to detect the foreign gene. The new gene may be identical to the natural gene and may not be in every cell of the body. Some viruses target certain organs, such as the kidney or liver, thus only samples taken from these areas could lead to detection.
The historical development of policy associated with gene doping began in 2001 when the International Olympic Committee
(IOC) Medical Commission met to discuss the implications of gene therapy for sport. It was shortly followed by the World Anti-Doping Agency
(WADA), which met in 2002 to discuss genetic enhancement at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
in New York. Also in 2002, the United States President’s Council on Bioethics
met twice to discuss the ethics of genetic technology related to sport. In 2003, WADA decided to include a prohibition of gene doping within their World Anti-Doping Code, which is formalized in its 2004 World Anti-Doping Code. Further, the American Association for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS) met in 2003 and 2004 to discuss the science and ethics of gene transfer technology for sport.
The World Anti-Doping Agency
(WADA) has already asked scientists to help find ways to prevent gene therapy from becoming the newest means of doping. In December 2005, the World Anti-Doping Agency
hosted its second landmark meeting on gene doping, which took place in Stockholm. At this meeting, the delegates drafted a declaration on gene doping which, for the first time, included a strong discouragement of the use of genetic testing for performance. In September 2010 a WADA funded research project reported for the first time that the direct and long-term detection of gene doping by the abuse of gene transfer techniques is possible in conventional blood samples.
The first product to be associated with genetic doping emerged on the approach to the Turin 2006 Olympic Winter Games
, where repoxygen
was discussed as a possible substance in use at the Games.
New description of genedoping on the prohibited list of the WADA:
"The transfer of cells or genetic elements or the use of cells, genetic elements or pharmacological agents to modulating expression of endogenous genes having the capacity to enhance athletic performance, is prohibited”
World Anti-Doping Agency
The World Anti-Doping Agency , , is an independent foundation created through a collective initiative led by the International Olympic Committee . It was set up on November 10, 1999 in Lausanne, Switzerland, as a result of what was called the "Declaration of Lausanne", to promote, coordinate and...
as "the non-therapeutic use of cell
Cell (biology)
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. The Alberts text discusses how the "cellular building blocks" move to shape developing embryos....
s, genes
Gênes
Gênes is the name of a département of the First French Empire in present Italy, named after the city of Genoa. It was formed in 1805, when Napoleon Bonaparte occupied the Republic of Genoa. Its capital was Genoa, and it was divided in the arrondissements of Genoa, Bobbio, Novi Ligure, Tortona and...
, genetic elements, or of the modulation of gene expression
Gene expression
Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins, but in non-protein coding genes such as ribosomal RNA , transfer RNA or small nuclear RNA genes, the product is a functional RNA...
, having the capacity to improve athletic performance". http://www.wada-ama.org/rtecontent/document/2008_List_En.pdf A complex ethical and philosophical issue is what defines "gene doping", especially in the context of bioethical debates about human enhancement
Human enhancement
Human enhancement refers to any attempt to temporarily or permanently overcome the current limitations of the human body through natural or artificial means...
. The idea stems from research done in the 1970s to treat human diseases by fixing the underlying genes.
An example of gene doping could involve the recreational use of gene therapies
Gene therapy
Gene therapy is the insertion, alteration, or removal of genes within an individual's cells and biological tissues to treat disease. It is a technique for correcting defective genes that are responsible for disease development...
intended to treat muscle-wasting disorders. Other applications include increasing muscle growth, blood production, endurance, oxygen dispersal and pain perception. Many of these chemicals may be indistinguishable from their natural counterparts. In such cases, nothing unusual would enter the bloodstream so officials would detect nothing in a blood
Blood test
A blood test is a laboratory analysis performed on a blood sample that is usually extracted from a vein in the arm using a needle, or via fingerprick....
or urine test. Other more invasive tests would still most likely be unable to detect the foreign gene. The new gene may be identical to the natural gene and may not be in every cell of the body. Some viruses target certain organs, such as the kidney or liver, thus only samples taken from these areas could lead to detection.
The historical development of policy associated with gene doping began in 2001 when the International Olympic Committee
International Olympic Committee
The International Olympic Committee is an international corporation based in Lausanne, Switzerland, created by Pierre de Coubertin on 23 June 1894 with Demetrios Vikelas as its first president...
(IOC) Medical Commission met to discuss the implications of gene therapy for sport. It was shortly followed by the World Anti-Doping Agency
World Anti-Doping Agency
The World Anti-Doping Agency , , is an independent foundation created through a collective initiative led by the International Olympic Committee . It was set up on November 10, 1999 in Lausanne, Switzerland, as a result of what was called the "Declaration of Lausanne", to promote, coordinate and...
(WADA), which met in 2002 to discuss genetic enhancement at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
The Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory is a private, non-profit institution with research programs focusing on cancer, neurobiology, plant genetics, genomics and bioinformatics. The Laboratory has a broad educational mission, including the recently established Watson School of Biological Sciences. It...
in New York. Also in 2002, the United States President’s Council on Bioethics
The President's Council on Bioethics
The President's Council on Bioethics was a group of individuals appointed by United States President George W. Bush to advise his administration on bioethics. Established on November 28, 2001, by Executive Order 13237, the Council was directed to "advise the President on bioethical issues that may...
met twice to discuss the ethics of genetic technology related to sport. In 2003, WADA decided to include a prohibition of gene doping within their World Anti-Doping Code, which is formalized in its 2004 World Anti-Doping Code. Further, the American Association for the Advancement of Science
American Association for the Advancement of Science
The American Association for the Advancement of Science is an international non-profit organization with the stated goals of promoting cooperation among scientists, defending scientific freedom, encouraging scientific responsibility, and supporting scientific education and science outreach for the...
(AAAS) met in 2003 and 2004 to discuss the science and ethics of gene transfer technology for sport.
The World Anti-Doping Agency
World Anti-Doping Agency
The World Anti-Doping Agency , , is an independent foundation created through a collective initiative led by the International Olympic Committee . It was set up on November 10, 1999 in Lausanne, Switzerland, as a result of what was called the "Declaration of Lausanne", to promote, coordinate and...
(WADA) has already asked scientists to help find ways to prevent gene therapy from becoming the newest means of doping. In December 2005, the World Anti-Doping Agency
World Anti-Doping Agency
The World Anti-Doping Agency , , is an independent foundation created through a collective initiative led by the International Olympic Committee . It was set up on November 10, 1999 in Lausanne, Switzerland, as a result of what was called the "Declaration of Lausanne", to promote, coordinate and...
hosted its second landmark meeting on gene doping, which took place in Stockholm. At this meeting, the delegates drafted a declaration on gene doping which, for the first time, included a strong discouragement of the use of genetic testing for performance. In September 2010 a WADA funded research project reported for the first time that the direct and long-term detection of gene doping by the abuse of gene transfer techniques is possible in conventional blood samples.
The first product to be associated with genetic doping emerged on the approach to the Turin 2006 Olympic Winter Games
2006 Winter Olympics
The 2006 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XX Olympic Winter Games, was a winter multi-sport event which was celebrated in Turin, Italy from February 10, 2006, through February 26, 2006. This marked the second time Italy hosted the Olympic Winter Games, the first being the VII Olympic Winter...
, where repoxygen
Repoxygen
Repoxygen is the tradename for a type of gene therapy that induces controlled release of erythropoietin in response to low oxygen concentration. It has been developed by Oxford Biomedica to treat anaemia...
was discussed as a possible substance in use at the Games.
See also
- DopingDoping (sport)The use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport is commonly referred to by the term "doping", particularly by those organizations that regulate competitions. The use of performance enhancing drugs is mostly done to improve athletic performance. This is why many sports ban the use of performance...
- Gene therapyGene therapyGene therapy is the insertion, alteration, or removal of genes within an individual's cells and biological tissues to treat disease. It is a technique for correcting defective genes that are responsible for disease development...
- World Anti-Doping AgencyWorld Anti-Doping AgencyThe World Anti-Doping Agency , , is an independent foundation created through a collective initiative led by the International Olympic Committee . It was set up on November 10, 1999 in Lausanne, Switzerland, as a result of what was called the "Declaration of Lausanne", to promote, coordinate and...
- List of doping cases in cycling
New description of genedoping on the prohibited list of the WADA:
"The transfer of cells or genetic elements or the use of cells, genetic elements or pharmacological agents to modulating expression of endogenous genes having the capacity to enhance athletic performance, is prohibited”
External links
- Gene Doping Documentary from Michigan State University
- World Anti-Doping Agency Website
- Genetically Modified Athletes: Biomedical Ethics, Gene Doping and Sport (Routledge, 2004), by Andy MiahAndy MiahAndy Miah is British bioethicist, academic and journalist. His work often focuses on technology and posthumanism.-Life and career:...
- Bioethics & Sport Blog
- Scientific American July 2004 - Gene Doping
- Miah, A. (2003) Gene Doping: Sport, Values & Bioethics. In Glasa, J. (Ed.) The Ethics of Human Genetics. Strasburg, Council of Europe, pp.171-180
- Forum for the Analysis of Sport Technology
- Scientific American Magazine (July 2004 Issue) Gene Doping
- Summary of TAB Working report 124 "Gene Doping" on behalf of the German Parliament (April 2008) cf. also Findings (February 2008)
- The social aspects of Gene Doping is discussed in the RU Sirius Show #117 6.29.07 with Steve Wozniak and WorldChanger Jamais Cascio.