Figure-ground in map design
Encyclopedia
An effectively designed map
is one in which the intended message is clearly communicated to the map user. By employing the concept of figure-ground, a viewer can easily distinguish between the main figure on a map and the background information. Several concepts that are key to developing good figure-ground in any cartographic design are differentiation, closed form, centrality, articulation and good contour. In addition, by considering the intended intellectual hierarchy, or the order of importance of each map element, the author can develop a visual hierarchy on the map that corresponds appropriately.
Incorporation of closure on a map is important because percipients interpret the figure to be the object or objects in the map that are closed. Additionally, there is a tendency for the percipient to complete or close unfinished objects. The location and shape of central figures on a map can be adjusted by varying the scale, projection, and format.
The figure of emphasis should be centrally located and surrounded by areas of a different character with contrast that lessens ground importance visually and emphasized the main figure. Both alignment and centering can be achieved through measurement or through visual approximation. The concept of centrality is important because the object located in the center of a map is most often assumed to be the figure. Other map elements can be centered in the remaining visual space after the figure has been centered.
Articulation utilizes texture to differentiate figure from ground. One common example of using articulation on a map is differentiating a continent
from the ocean
. The ocean, in most cases, will be the ground and the continent will be the figure. By adding fine-textured shading to water, the continent pops out visually as the figure. Another method that can be employed for articulation called is vignetting, or the inclusion of brightness gradients at the land-water edge.
Good contour on the map can be described as the viewer’s ability to continue the line throughout the map. The figure is formed by a contour or outline (as opposed to an isometric contour line
), the common boundary between the figure and ground, usually through a brightness contrast. If a figure is not separated entirely from the ground, a simple black contour line can be drawn around the figure enclosing it and thus differentiating it from the ground.
Intellectual hierarchy, also known as a scale of concepts, refers to the idea that some map features are more important than others. The placement on a map or the ordering of information will convey relative importance of map features to the percipient. If developed on the map correctly, the intellectual hierarchy will correspond to the visual hierarchy established on the map. By developing a visual hierarchy, the percipient can distinguish relative importance to map objects, drawing attention to the most important objects first. By emphasizing the colors of important figures and fading out the colors on less important figures, the perceived distance between the two is increased. Also by employing color contrasts, contour sharpness can be adjusted.
, neurology
, and computer science
, have studied differentiation of figure from ground. Many studies have employed different experiments, varying the shades, textures, and orientations of test pictures to determine the best method for figure-ground design with mixed results. A current application of figure-ground research is the development of computer vision
for robot
s. By studying the way humans perceive figure and ground, methods can be developed to improve computer vision
algorithms.
Map
A map is a visual representation of an area—a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, regions, and themes....
is one in which the intended message is clearly communicated to the map user. By employing the concept of figure-ground, a viewer can easily distinguish between the main figure on a map and the background information. Several concepts that are key to developing good figure-ground in any cartographic design are differentiation, closed form, centrality, articulation and good contour. In addition, by considering the intended intellectual hierarchy, or the order of importance of each map element, the author can develop a visual hierarchy on the map that corresponds appropriately.
Figure-ground cartographic elements
Differentiation is described as the ability to easily discriminate the main figure from the ground. This can be accomplished by designing the desired figure as visually heterogeneous and reducing the level of distraction caused by the ground. By adding surface patterns or textures to the figure, visual differentiation will lead to figure definition.Incorporation of closure on a map is important because percipients interpret the figure to be the object or objects in the map that are closed. Additionally, there is a tendency for the percipient to complete or close unfinished objects. The location and shape of central figures on a map can be adjusted by varying the scale, projection, and format.
The figure of emphasis should be centrally located and surrounded by areas of a different character with contrast that lessens ground importance visually and emphasized the main figure. Both alignment and centering can be achieved through measurement or through visual approximation. The concept of centrality is important because the object located in the center of a map is most often assumed to be the figure. Other map elements can be centered in the remaining visual space after the figure has been centered.
Articulation utilizes texture to differentiate figure from ground. One common example of using articulation on a map is differentiating a continent
Continent
A continent is one of several very large landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, with seven regions commonly regarded as continents—they are : Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Antarctica, Europe, and Australia.Plate tectonics is...
from the ocean
Ocean
An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas.More than half of this area is over 3,000...
. The ocean, in most cases, will be the ground and the continent will be the figure. By adding fine-textured shading to water, the continent pops out visually as the figure. Another method that can be employed for articulation called is vignetting, or the inclusion of brightness gradients at the land-water edge.
Good contour on the map can be described as the viewer’s ability to continue the line throughout the map. The figure is formed by a contour or outline (as opposed to an isometric contour line
Contour line
A contour line of a function of two variables is a curve along which the function has a constant value. In cartography, a contour line joins points of equal elevation above a given level, such as mean sea level...
), the common boundary between the figure and ground, usually through a brightness contrast. If a figure is not separated entirely from the ground, a simple black contour line can be drawn around the figure enclosing it and thus differentiating it from the ground.
Intellectual hierarchy, also known as a scale of concepts, refers to the idea that some map features are more important than others. The placement on a map or the ordering of information will convey relative importance of map features to the percipient. If developed on the map correctly, the intellectual hierarchy will correspond to the visual hierarchy established on the map. By developing a visual hierarchy, the percipient can distinguish relative importance to map objects, drawing attention to the most important objects first. By emphasizing the colors of important figures and fading out the colors on less important figures, the perceived distance between the two is increased. Also by employing color contrasts, contour sharpness can be adjusted.
Research in figure-ground relationships
Fields other than cartography, such as psychologyPsychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
, neurology
Neurology
Neurology is a medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Specifically, it deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of disease involving the central, peripheral, and autonomic nervous systems, including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue,...
, and computer science
Computer science
Computer science or computing science is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and of practical techniques for their implementation and application in computer systems...
, have studied differentiation of figure from ground. Many studies have employed different experiments, varying the shades, textures, and orientations of test pictures to determine the best method for figure-ground design with mixed results. A current application of figure-ground research is the development of computer vision
Computer vision
Computer vision is a field that includes methods for acquiring, processing, analysing, and understanding images and, in general, high-dimensional data from the real world in order to produce numerical or symbolic information, e.g., in the forms of decisions...
for robot
Robot
A robot is a mechanical or virtual intelligent agent that can perform tasks automatically or with guidance, typically by remote control. In practice a robot is usually an electro-mechanical machine that is guided by computer and electronic programming. Robots can be autonomous, semi-autonomous or...
s. By studying the way humans perceive figure and ground, methods can be developed to improve computer vision
Computer vision
Computer vision is a field that includes methods for acquiring, processing, analysing, and understanding images and, in general, high-dimensional data from the real world in order to produce numerical or symbolic information, e.g., in the forms of decisions...
algorithms.