Etruscan coins
Encyclopedia
Like the Egyptians
, Phoenicia
ns and Carthaginians
, the Etruscans were also rather slow to adopt the Greek
invention of coinage. The brief period of Etruscan coinage, with the predominance of marks of value, seems to be an amalgam that reconciles two very different monetary systems: the ‘primitive’ bronze-weighing and aes grave economy of central Italy with that of struck silver and gold issues of southern Italian Greek type not familiar in Etruria.
An issue of silver didrachms with a crudely engraved male head issued on a similar ‘Chalcidian’ weight standard to the undenominated coins of Vulci and Populonia, but bearing the mark of value 5, has been tentatively attributed to Luca during the last quarter of the 4th century or later. They correspond to a single silver unit of about 2.25 grams, probably representing the silver equivalent of a bronze as or libra, derived from the Greek litra. These male heads were probably followed by a more finely produced octopus/amphora silver series , also struck on the ‘Chalcidian’ standard, but with exactly double the unit of value of the former. The marks of value 20, 10 and 5, give a silver unit or as of about 1.13 grams, approximately one Roman scruple, and probably represent a devaluation of the bronze unit in relation to silver.
Populonia may have been the first Etruscan city to place a mark of value on its coinage, following a practice already established by the mid-5th century at Syracuse and other Sicilian mints for silver uncial fractions of the litra, and at Akragas, the silver 5-litrae denominated ΠEN for pentalitron and I for litra . The first Metus series has been dated to the second half of the 5th century by recent excavations at Prestino, via Isonzo , a chronology confirmed by the subsequent find of a rare 5-unit piece of the same series in the excavation of the early 4th century Etruscan sanctuary at Golasecca, from the phase III A 2 stratum . The weight standard employed seems to be the Corinthian stater (or Attic didrachm) with a theoretical weight of about 8.6 grams, subdivided into 10, 5 and 2½ units that seem to be on the Sicilian silver litrae standard of 0.86 grams. An issue of staters on the ‘Corinthian’ standard attested at Cumae, Etruria’s nearest Greek neighbour, dated to about 470-455 BC , may have provided the metrological model for this issue, which was denominated with Etruscan numeral X (=10); associated fractions are, V (= 5) and II< (=2½).
The second Metus silver series of Populonia, massive by Etruscan standards, with the mark of value 20, 10 and 5 units, is on the same metrological standard as the Hercle and Menvra 20-units, male and female head 10, and male head 5, 2⅕ and 1 unit and by metrological association, are related to the Metus, lion head, male and female headed 50 to 10 unit gold issues. Find evidence from the Ponte Gini di Orentino excavation suggests a dating for this whole phase in the first half of the 3rd century and may be connected with the First Punic War. The metrology of this phase, with marks of value exactly double those of the first Metus issue, may correspond to the elusive ‘Italian school’ introduction of the denarius proposed by Pliny to 269 BC , as it is exactly on the same standard and anticipates the Roman denarius and multiple-as systems introduced during the Second Punic War in about 212/211.
An issue depicting a hippocamp with marks of value CC and C, tentatively attributed to Luca, is on the same weight standard as the Populonia’s second Metus series (20, 10 and 5 units), but the 10 units is expressed by two numerals of five (CC).
Last, but by no means least, is a spectacular gold series of high artistic merit probably from Volsini, with marks of value 20 and 5 . The unique Apollo-like head/majestic bull walking 20-unit piece is reminiscent of the bronze issues of the Latin colonies of Aesernia, Cales, Compultaria, Suessa Aurunca and Teanum in Campania dated to the mid-3rd century BC. The reverse running dog 5-unit coin is reminiscent of the Chiana Valley male head/dog running struck bronze of uncertain date in the 3rd century. This is an isolated series with a gold unit of approximately 0.225 grams, which places it before the main gold issue of Populonia with a gold unit of 0.056 grams issued in the earlier part of the 3rd century, and possibly related to the intervention of Rome at the time of the slave rebellion at Volsini in 265/4.
to semi-libral
at the outbreak of the Second Punic War in 217 BC. Further reductions took place until the cast bronze gave way to struck sextantal bronze in about 214-212 BC, and the introduction of the silver 10-as denarius with its fractions, the quinarius (5-asses) and sestertius (2½-asses).
Two large struck bronze series with Populonia and Vetulonia are exactly on the Roman post-semi-libral
as standard that is dated by Crawford to about 215-211 BC. The Etruscans were not frightened to experiment, as is illustrated by the case of an extraordinary struck bronze series with incuse reverses, presumably from Populonia and based on a hundred units (or centesimal system) which may correspond to the struck Roman sexantal as, theoretically of about 54 grams. An even more remarkable issue from a metrological point of view is one that I interpret as a dual-denominated decimal/uncial series, overstruck on earlier post semi-libral
bronzes, while a similar, but slightly lighter issue seems tariffed /X or 11 centismae, both dateable to about 200 BC.
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh...
, Phoenicia
Phoenicia
Phoenicia , was an ancient civilization in Canaan which covered most of the western, coastal part of the Fertile Crescent. Several major Phoenician cities were built on the coastline of the Mediterranean. It was an enterprising maritime trading culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550...
ns and Carthaginians
Carthage
Carthage , implying it was a 'new Tyre') is a major urban centre that has existed for nearly 3,000 years on the Gulf of Tunis, developing from a Phoenician colony of the 1st millennium BC...
, the Etruscans were also rather slow to adopt the Greek
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
invention of coinage. The brief period of Etruscan coinage, with the predominance of marks of value, seems to be an amalgam that reconciles two very different monetary systems: the ‘primitive’ bronze-weighing and aes grave economy of central Italy with that of struck silver and gold issues of southern Italian Greek type not familiar in Etruria.
Silver and gold
Setting aside the early 5th century BC Auriol-type silver fractions of the Volterra hoard of 1868 , which are probably not of Etruscan production, the earliest struck silver coinage seems to be that of Vulci and Populonia. An attribution to the 5th century for these first issues of tridrachms, didrachms, or staters and drachms is plausible since they seem to be struck on the ‘Chalcidian’ silver drachm standard of theoretically about 5.8 grams , which were present at Etruria’s nearest Greek neighbour, i.e. Cumae, dated to about 475-470 BC and at other Greek cities important to Etruscan sea-borne commerce in the early 5th century, such as Himera, Naxos and Zancle. The coins are of Greek style, but with an Etruscan flavour and have a predilection for ‘apotropaic’ images of exotic animals and monsters that drive away evil demons. The wheels with curved struts of Vulci are also reminiscent of some 5th century Macedonian tribal coins . These early issues are rare and seem not to have been exported; they have no mark of value and must have had a limited circulation.An issue of silver didrachms with a crudely engraved male head issued on a similar ‘Chalcidian’ weight standard to the undenominated coins of Vulci and Populonia, but bearing the mark of value 5, has been tentatively attributed to Luca during the last quarter of the 4th century or later. They correspond to a single silver unit of about 2.25 grams, probably representing the silver equivalent of a bronze as or libra, derived from the Greek litra. These male heads were probably followed by a more finely produced octopus/amphora silver series , also struck on the ‘Chalcidian’ standard, but with exactly double the unit of value of the former. The marks of value 20, 10 and 5, give a silver unit or as of about 1.13 grams, approximately one Roman scruple, and probably represent a devaluation of the bronze unit in relation to silver.
Populonia may have been the first Etruscan city to place a mark of value on its coinage, following a practice already established by the mid-5th century at Syracuse and other Sicilian mints for silver uncial fractions of the litra, and at Akragas, the silver 5-litrae denominated ΠEN for pentalitron and I for litra . The first Metus series has been dated to the second half of the 5th century by recent excavations at Prestino, via Isonzo , a chronology confirmed by the subsequent find of a rare 5-unit piece of the same series in the excavation of the early 4th century Etruscan sanctuary at Golasecca, from the phase III A 2 stratum . The weight standard employed seems to be the Corinthian stater (or Attic didrachm) with a theoretical weight of about 8.6 grams, subdivided into 10, 5 and 2½ units that seem to be on the Sicilian silver litrae standard of 0.86 grams. An issue of staters on the ‘Corinthian’ standard attested at Cumae, Etruria’s nearest Greek neighbour, dated to about 470-455 BC , may have provided the metrological model for this issue, which was denominated with Etruscan numeral X (=10); associated fractions are, V (= 5) and II< (=2½).
The second Metus silver series of Populonia, massive by Etruscan standards, with the mark of value 20, 10 and 5 units, is on the same metrological standard as the Hercle and Menvra 20-units, male and female head 10, and male head 5, 2⅕ and 1 unit and by metrological association, are related to the Metus, lion head, male and female headed 50 to 10 unit gold issues. Find evidence from the Ponte Gini di Orentino excavation suggests a dating for this whole phase in the first half of the 3rd century and may be connected with the First Punic War. The metrology of this phase, with marks of value exactly double those of the first Metus issue, may correspond to the elusive ‘Italian school’ introduction of the denarius proposed by Pliny to 269 BC , as it is exactly on the same standard and anticipates the Roman denarius and multiple-as systems introduced during the Second Punic War in about 212/211.
An issue depicting a hippocamp with marks of value CC and C, tentatively attributed to Luca, is on the same weight standard as the Populonia’s second Metus series (20, 10 and 5 units), but the 10 units is expressed by two numerals of five (CC).
Last, but by no means least, is a spectacular gold series of high artistic merit probably from Volsini, with marks of value 20 and 5 . The unique Apollo-like head/majestic bull walking 20-unit piece is reminiscent of the bronze issues of the Latin colonies of Aesernia, Cales, Compultaria, Suessa Aurunca and Teanum in Campania dated to the mid-3rd century BC. The reverse running dog 5-unit coin is reminiscent of the Chiana Valley male head/dog running struck bronze of uncertain date in the 3rd century. This is an isolated series with a gold unit of approximately 0.225 grams, which places it before the main gold issue of Populonia with a gold unit of 0.056 grams issued in the earlier part of the 3rd century, and possibly related to the intervention of Rome at the time of the slave rebellion at Volsini in 265/4.
Bronze
The origin of Etruscan bronze coinage is to be sought in the central Italian pre-coinage aes rude ingots, or lumps and ramo secco and plain bronze bars, which circulated as currency throughout Italy from at least the 5th century BC. By the treaty of Apamaea between the Seleucid Empire and the Romans in 188 BC, the Roman libra was for practical purposes tariffed at 80 to the Attic talent of 25,8 kg, giving a libra or pound of about 325 g, subdivided into 12 unciae of about 27 g and 288 scripula of about 1,13 g. The cast round aes grave coinage of Volterra , Tarquinia, including bars , and the Chiana Valley with its associated struck unciae and semi-unciae , are all firmly dated to the 3rd century BC, including a series of oval shaped aes grave possibly from Volsini . This cast coinage seems to mirror the extensive Roman series. The date of the inception of the aes grave is estimated to be about 280 BC and to have been progressively reduced in weight from libralLibral
The libral standard compares the weight of coins to the bronze as, which originally weighed one Roman pound, but decreased over time to 1/2 pound , and further. It is often used in discussions of ancient coinage in Italy, especially Etruscan coins and Roman Republican coinage...
to semi-libral
Libral
The libral standard compares the weight of coins to the bronze as, which originally weighed one Roman pound, but decreased over time to 1/2 pound , and further. It is often used in discussions of ancient coinage in Italy, especially Etruscan coins and Roman Republican coinage...
at the outbreak of the Second Punic War in 217 BC. Further reductions took place until the cast bronze gave way to struck sextantal bronze in about 214-212 BC, and the introduction of the silver 10-as denarius with its fractions, the quinarius (5-asses) and sestertius (2½-asses).
Two large struck bronze series with Populonia and Vetulonia are exactly on the Roman post-semi-libral
Libral
The libral standard compares the weight of coins to the bronze as, which originally weighed one Roman pound, but decreased over time to 1/2 pound , and further. It is often used in discussions of ancient coinage in Italy, especially Etruscan coins and Roman Republican coinage...
as standard that is dated by Crawford to about 215-211 BC. The Etruscans were not frightened to experiment, as is illustrated by the case of an extraordinary struck bronze series with incuse reverses, presumably from Populonia and based on a hundred units (or centesimal system) which may correspond to the struck Roman sexantal as, theoretically of about 54 grams. An even more remarkable issue from a metrological point of view is one that I interpret as a dual-denominated decimal/uncial series, overstruck on earlier post semi-libral
Libral
The libral standard compares the weight of coins to the bronze as, which originally weighed one Roman pound, but decreased over time to 1/2 pound , and further. It is often used in discussions of ancient coinage in Italy, especially Etruscan coins and Roman Republican coinage...
bronzes, while a similar, but slightly lighter issue seems tariffed /X or 11 centismae, both dateable to about 200 BC.
Literature
- AA. VV.: Convegni del Centro Internazionale di Studi Numismatici di Napoli: "Contributi introduttivi allo studio della monetazione etrusca. Atti del V Convegno, Napoli 1975", Istituto italiano di numismatica, Roma, 1977
- Alberto Campana: CNIA (Corpus Nummorum Italiæ Antiquæ) published in review Panorama Numismatico
- Keith N. Rutter. Greek coinages of Southern Italy and Sicily. London, Spink, 1997. ISBN 0-907605-82-6
- Sara Sorda: I ripostigli di bronzo protostorici dell'Italia centrale, in AA.VV.: "Atti del V convegno".
- Thompson M., Mørkholm O., Kray C. M. (eds.): An Inventory of Greek Coins Hoards (IGCH), New York, 1973
- Italo Vecchi: "Coinage of Etruria and Umbria. Parte 1.The coinage of the Rasna: the gold, silver, and bronze coinages from the mints of CosaCosaCosa was a Latin colonia founded under Roman influence in southwestern Tuscany in 273 BC, perhaps on land confiscated from the Etruscans...
, Luca (?),Pisae (?),Populonia,"Velsnani",Vetulonia,Vulci and Uncertain Mints from V century to III century BC"; not published
More texts
- James MillingenJames MillingenJames Millingen , was a Dutch-English archaeologist, now known as a numismatist.-Life:He was the second son of Michael Millingen, a Dutch merchant who had emigrated from Rotterdam to Batavia, and then settled in Queen's Square, Westminster...
: Considérations sur la Numismatique de l'ancienne Italie. Firenze, 1841, (supplementi nel 1844). - Francesco CarelliFrancesco CarelliFrancesco Carelli was an administrative officer of the Kingdom of Naples and an important numismatist, coin collector and antiquarian. He had a special interest in ancient coins and himself had an important collection of ancient Greek coins...
: Numorum Italiae veteris Tabulae CCII, ed. Cavedoni, 1850. - Luigi Sambon: Recherches sur les monnaies de la presquíle italique depuis leur origine jusqu´ a la bataille d'Actium. Napoli, 1870.
- Wilhelm Deecke: Etruskische Forschungen, Heft II. 1876.
- Raffaele GarrucciRaffaele GarrucciRaffaele Garrucci was a historian of Christian art. He belonged to a wealthy family, entered the Society of Jesus at the age of fifteen and was professed on 19 March 1853...
: Le monete dell'Italia antica. Monete fuse, monete coniate. Roma, 1885. (ne esiste una ristampa anastatica: ISBN 88-271-0110-1). - Theodor MommsenTheodor MommsenChristian Matthias Theodor Mommsen was a German classical scholar, historian, jurist, journalist, politician, archaeologist, and writer generally regarded as the greatest classicist of the 19th century. His work regarding Roman history is still of fundamental importance for contemporary research...
: Die Geschichte des römische Münzwesen - Berlin 1860. Tr. fr.: Histoire de la monnaie romain. Paris 1865. (Reprint Graz 1956. Reprint Forni 1990) - Heinrich DresselHeinrich DresselHeinrich Dressel was a German archaeologist. He is best known for several books on Latin inscriptions, and he is the discoverer of the Duenos inscription, one of the oldest extant examples of Old Latin writing....
: Zeitschrift für Numismatik, xiv, 1887. - Robert Seymour ConwayRobert Seymour ConwayRobert Seymour Conway was a British classical scholar and comparative philologist. Born in Stoke Newington, he was the older brother of Katharine St John Conway...
, Italian Dialects. Cambridge, 1897. - Ernst Justus Haeberlin, Die Systematik des ältesten römischen Münzwesens. Berlin, 1905.
- Ernst Justus Haeberlin, Die jüngste etruskische und die älteste römiche Goldprägung, Z. f. N., xxvi. 229 ff.
- Kurt Regling: Zum älteren römischen und italischen Münzwesen. Klio, Bd. vi, Heft 3, 1906.
Collections
- Sylloge Nummorum GraecorumSylloge Nummorum GraecorumSylloge Nummorum Graecorum is an ancient Greek coin research project of the British Academy which catalogues both public and private Greek coin collections in the UK. It has published more than 120 volumes of images and data and its online database includes over 25,000 coins in British collections...
- American Numismatic SocietyAmerican Numismatic SocietyThe American Numismatic Society is a New York City-based organization dedicated to the study of coins and medals.-Introduction:...