Deterrence (psychological)
Encyclopedia
Deterrence is a theory from behavioral psychology about preventing or controlling actions or behavior through fear of punishment or retribution
. This theory of criminology
is shaping the criminal justice
system of the United States
and various other countries.
Deterrence can be divided into two separate categories.
General deterrence manifests itself in policy whereby examples are made of deviants. The individual actor is not the focus of the attempt at behavioral change, but rather receives punishment in public view in order to deter other individuals from deviance in the future.
This is also demonstrated in the Islamic Crime & Punishment system (Hoodoo), applied 1400 years ago, where the punishment for crimes is performed in public, and is highly deterring mainly aiming at general social deterrence.
Specific deterrence focuses on the individual deviant and attempts to correct his or her behavior. Punishment is meant to discourage the individual from recidivating.
At the military level, the principle is expressed in deterrence theory
.
There is some debate over whether deterrence is achieved through
and whether it is aimed at others or the offender themselves or both.
began in biblical times with the “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth” guideline, although later Christians interpreted this literally, emphasizing compassion and tolerance rather than punishment, even to the extent of "turning the other cheek."
Although most Western populations eventually embraced some version of Judeo-Christian values, medieval Europe displayed little of the restraint prescribed by this religious tradition. On the contrary, the level of violence among medieval populations was only exceeded by the force applied by emerging states in attempting to maintain control and suppress it. Deciding guilt in an offender was more important than the nature of the offense. Once the guilt was announced, the question was not so much whether an execution should take place, but how dramatic it should be. There were not many punishments besides exile
and execution.
Two utilitarian philosophers of the eighteenth century, Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham
, formulated the deterrence theory as both an explanation of crime and a method for reducing it. Beccaria argued that crime was not only an attack on an individual but on society as well. This extended the issue of punishment beyond retribution
and restitution
to aggrieved individuals. Society was cast as victim, not merely bystander, and what had been seen as a dispute between individuals, expanded to an issue of criminal law. For the utilitarians, the purpose of punishment became the protection of society through the prevention of crime.
To read more about the argument concerning who deterrence is aimed at see Beccaria and Bentham’s ideas as presented in Moberly, Sir W. H., [1968] The Ethics of Punishment.
Retributive justice
Retributive justice is a theory of justice that considers that punishment, if proportionate, is a morally acceptable response to crime, with an eye to the satisfaction and psychological benefits it can bestow to the aggrieved party, its intimates and society....
. This theory of criminology
Criminology
Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behavior in both the individual and in society...
is shaping the criminal justice
Criminal justice
Criminal Justice is the system of practices and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control, deterring and mitigating crime, or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts...
system of the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
and various other countries.
Deterrence can be divided into two separate categories.
General deterrence manifests itself in policy whereby examples are made of deviants. The individual actor is not the focus of the attempt at behavioral change, but rather receives punishment in public view in order to deter other individuals from deviance in the future.
This is also demonstrated in the Islamic Crime & Punishment system (Hoodoo), applied 1400 years ago, where the punishment for crimes is performed in public, and is highly deterring mainly aiming at general social deterrence.
Specific deterrence focuses on the individual deviant and attempts to correct his or her behavior. Punishment is meant to discourage the individual from recidivating.
At the military level, the principle is expressed in deterrence theory
Deterrence theory
Deterrence theory gained increased prominence as a military strategy during the Cold War with regard to the use of nuclear weapons, and features prominently in current United States foreign policy regarding the development of nuclear technology in North Korea and Iran. Deterrence theory however was...
.
There is some debate over whether deterrence is achieved through
- the higher probability of arrest and conviction, and/or,
- severity of punishment, or
- denunciation,
and whether it is aimed at others or the offender themselves or both.
History of Deterrence
The history of punishment in reaction to crimeCrime
Crime is the breach of rules or laws for which some governing authority can ultimately prescribe a conviction...
began in biblical times with the “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth” guideline, although later Christians interpreted this literally, emphasizing compassion and tolerance rather than punishment, even to the extent of "turning the other cheek."
Although most Western populations eventually embraced some version of Judeo-Christian values, medieval Europe displayed little of the restraint prescribed by this religious tradition. On the contrary, the level of violence among medieval populations was only exceeded by the force applied by emerging states in attempting to maintain control and suppress it. Deciding guilt in an offender was more important than the nature of the offense. Once the guilt was announced, the question was not so much whether an execution should take place, but how dramatic it should be. There were not many punishments besides exile
Exile
Exile means to be away from one's home , while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened with imprisonment or death upon return...
and execution.
Two utilitarian philosophers of the eighteenth century, Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. He became a leading theorist in Anglo-American philosophy of law, and a political radical whose ideas influenced the development of welfarism...
, formulated the deterrence theory as both an explanation of crime and a method for reducing it. Beccaria argued that crime was not only an attack on an individual but on society as well. This extended the issue of punishment beyond retribution
Retributive justice
Retributive justice is a theory of justice that considers that punishment, if proportionate, is a morally acceptable response to crime, with an eye to the satisfaction and psychological benefits it can bestow to the aggrieved party, its intimates and society....
and restitution
Restitution
The law of restitution is the law of gains-based recovery. It is to be contrasted with the law of compensation, which is the law of loss-based recovery. Obligations to make restitution and obligations to pay compensation are each a type of legal response to events in the real world. When a court...
to aggrieved individuals. Society was cast as victim, not merely bystander, and what had been seen as a dispute between individuals, expanded to an issue of criminal law. For the utilitarians, the purpose of punishment became the protection of society through the prevention of crime.
Capital Punishment
There is an ongoing debate about deterrence correlation with capital punishment. Today, there is no conclusive evidence supporting either theory.External links
- Deterrence and the Death Penalty Statistical information and studies
Further reading
To read more about severity of punishment in relation to deterrence, see Mendes, M. & McDonald, M. D., [2001] “Putting Severity of Punishment Back in the Deterrence Package” in Policy Studies Journal, vol. 29, no. 4, p.588-610, and Moberly, Sir W. H., [1968] The Ethics of Punishment.To read more about the argument concerning who deterrence is aimed at see Beccaria and Bentham’s ideas as presented in Moberly, Sir W. H., [1968] The Ethics of Punishment.