Cognitive functions
Encyclopedia
In some forms of psychological testing
, particularly those related to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
, the cognitive functions (sometimes known as mental functions) are defined as different ways of perceiving and judging the world. They are defined as "thinking", "feeling", "sensing" and "intuition".
in his pioneering work Psychological Types (1921, ISBN 0-691-09770-4). Jung also posited that the functions formed a hierarchy within a person's personality—the most important function is referred to as the "dominant", with the remaining three filling the roles as "auxiliary," "tertiary," and "inferior" functions. In addition, each mental function is seen as either introverted or extroverted (known as attitudes
). This idea is interpreted in terms of whether the person finds it more rewarding when using the function in question to have an outward focus on people and things (extroversion) or an inward focus on thoughts and ideas (introversion). These models do not claim that people are only capable of applying the function in question in that attitude, but rather that operating in the opposite attitude requires the expenditure of "energy" (or rather, emotional resources, enthusiasm, and so on) whilst operating in the person's natural attitude replenishes that same energy.
Isabel Myers, an early pioneer of psychometric testing whose ideas remain controversial within psychology
, formalised these ideas and proposed that the mixture of types in an individual's personality could be measured through responses to a personality test she devised along with her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. In this model, four "dichotomies" are defined, each labelled by two letters (one for each of the opposites in question), as shown by the emboldened letters in the table. Individuals' personalities fall into sixteen different categories depending on which side of each dichotomy they belong to, labelled by the four applicable letters (for example, an "ESFP" type is someone whose preferences are extraversion, sensing, feeling and perceiving).
Many, however, have found Jung's writing to be ambiguous, and those who study and follow Jung's theories (Jungians) are typically adamant that Myers is incorrect. Jungians interpret Jung as explicitly stating that the tertiary function is actually in the same attitude as the dominant, providing balance. More recently, typologists such as John Beebe
and Linda Berens have introduced theoretical systems in which all people possess eight functions—equivalent to the four functions as defined by Jung and Myers but in each of the two possible attitudes—with the four in the opposite attitude to that measured known as the "shadow functions", residing largely in the unconscious.
There is controversy even within the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT), co-founded by Myers, regarding the attitude of the tertiary relative to the dominant. "The MBTI Qualifying Program", a binder given out during official training, puts the tertiary in the opposite attitude to the dominant on page 13; however, "The Manual", which gives official instructions on how to use the test, has the tertiary in the same attitude on page 31. Charles Martin, ex-vice president of research at CAPT, writes the following on page 22 of the binder, "In what attitude is the tertiary? Isabel Myers read Jung to say that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior are all in the same attitude and opposite the dominant. Others (Harold Grant) read: tertiary is in the same attitude as the dominant."
There is a difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the designation of "inferior" function. While the MBTI clearly designates only the fourth function as the inferior, Jung uses a more flexible definition. "As a consequence of this one-sided development, one or more functions are necessarily retarded. These functions may properly be called inferior ..." (Jung, [1921] 1971:Def. Inferior Function, par. 763).
has not published a type table, the format that Isabel Myers devised can also be applied to his theory. Beebe describes the different cognitive functions' role in the overall personality in terms of various mythic archetypes. Just as in Myers's table, personality types whose primary four functions are completely opposite are separated by one block along diagonals. The same does not apply to the four "shadow" functions, however.
. In this approach the Judging functions are in the front-left and right-back brain and the Perception functions in the right-back and left-front brain. The extraverted functions are in the front of the brain, while the introverted functions are in the back of the brain. The order of the cognitive functions are then determined not by an archetypal hierarchy (as supposed by Beebe) but by an innate brain lateralization preference.
Psychological testing
Psychological testing is a field characterized by the use of samples of behavior in order to assess psychological construct, such as cognitive and emotional functioning, about a given individual. The technical term for the science behind psychological testing is psychometrics...
, particularly those related to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator assessment is a psychometric questionnaire designed to measure psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions...
, the cognitive functions (sometimes known as mental functions) are defined as different ways of perceiving and judging the world. They are defined as "thinking", "feeling", "sensing" and "intuition".
History
The model in which these four cognitive functions combine in different ways to form different people's personalities was initially conceived by Carl JungCarl Jung
Carl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and the founder of Analytical Psychology. Jung is considered the first modern psychiatrist to view the human psyche as "by nature religious" and make it the focus of exploration. Jung is one of the best known researchers in the field of dream analysis and...
in his pioneering work Psychological Types (1921, ISBN 0-691-09770-4). Jung also posited that the functions formed a hierarchy within a person's personality—the most important function is referred to as the "dominant", with the remaining three filling the roles as "auxiliary," "tertiary," and "inferior" functions. In addition, each mental function is seen as either introverted or extroverted (known as attitudes
Attitude (psychology)
An attitude is a hypothetical construct that represents an individual's degree of like or dislike for something. Attitudes are generally positive or negative views of a person, place, thing, or event— this is often referred to as the attitude object...
). This idea is interpreted in terms of whether the person finds it more rewarding when using the function in question to have an outward focus on people and things (extroversion) or an inward focus on thoughts and ideas (introversion). These models do not claim that people are only capable of applying the function in question in that attitude, but rather that operating in the opposite attitude requires the expenditure of "energy" (or rather, emotional resources, enthusiasm, and so on) whilst operating in the person's natural attitude replenishes that same energy.
| Myers' Dichotomies | |
| Extraversion | Introversion |
| Sensing | iNtuition |
| Thinking | Feeling |
| Judging | Perceiving |
| Bold letters are used as shorthand labels | |
Isabel Myers, an early pioneer of psychometric testing whose ideas remain controversial within psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
, formalised these ideas and proposed that the mixture of types in an individual's personality could be measured through responses to a personality test she devised along with her mother, Katharine Cook Briggs, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. In this model, four "dichotomies" are defined, each labelled by two letters (one for each of the opposites in question), as shown by the emboldened letters in the table. Individuals' personalities fall into sixteen different categories depending on which side of each dichotomy they belong to, labelled by the four applicable letters (for example, an "ESFP" type is someone whose preferences are extraversion, sensing, feeling and perceiving).
Controversy over attitudes
Myers interpreted Jung as saying that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior functions are always in the opposite attitude of the dominant. In support of Myers' (and/or Briggs') interpretation, in one sentence Jung seems to state that the "three inferior" functions of an (extreme) extravert are introverted. The "most differentiated function is always employed in an extraverted way, whereas the inferior functions are introverted" (Jung, [1921] 1971:par. 575).Many, however, have found Jung's writing to be ambiguous, and those who study and follow Jung's theories (Jungians) are typically adamant that Myers is incorrect. Jungians interpret Jung as explicitly stating that the tertiary function is actually in the same attitude as the dominant, providing balance. More recently, typologists such as John Beebe
John Beebe
John Beebe is a Jungian analyst in practice in San Francisco. He received degrees from Harvard College and the University of Chicago medical school. He is a past President of the C.G...
and Linda Berens have introduced theoretical systems in which all people possess eight functions—equivalent to the four functions as defined by Jung and Myers but in each of the two possible attitudes—with the four in the opposite attitude to that measured known as the "shadow functions", residing largely in the unconscious.
There is controversy even within the Center for Applications of Psychological Type (CAPT), co-founded by Myers, regarding the attitude of the tertiary relative to the dominant. "The MBTI Qualifying Program", a binder given out during official training, puts the tertiary in the opposite attitude to the dominant on page 13; however, "The Manual", which gives official instructions on how to use the test, has the tertiary in the same attitude on page 31. Charles Martin, ex-vice president of research at CAPT, writes the following on page 22 of the binder, "In what attitude is the tertiary? Isabel Myers read Jung to say that the auxiliary, tertiary, and inferior are all in the same attitude and opposite the dominant. Others (Harold Grant) read: tertiary is in the same attitude as the dominant."
Different models
The tables below give different theorists' ideas about personality types in terms of "cognitive functions".Carl Jung
Carl Jung developed the theory of cognitive processes in his work "Psychological Types". He used the terms dominant, auxiliary, and inferior.| Dominant | ||||
| Auxiliary | ||||
| Inferior | ||||
| Dominant | ||||
| Auxiliary | ||||
| Inferior | ||||
There is a difference between Jung and the MBTI regarding the designation of "inferior" function. While the MBTI clearly designates only the fourth function as the inferior, Jung uses a more flexible definition. "As a consequence of this one-sided development, one or more functions are necessarily retarded. These functions may properly be called inferior ..." (Jung, [1921] 1971:Def. Inferior Function, par. 763).
Isabel Myers
Isabel Myers created the original type table. In her table, diametrically opposite personality types (that is, those with no traits in common among the dichotomies) are separated by one block along diagonals.John Beebe
Though John BeebeJohn Beebe
John Beebe is a Jungian analyst in practice in San Francisco. He received degrees from Harvard College and the University of Chicago medical school. He is a past President of the C.G...
has not published a type table, the format that Isabel Myers devised can also be applied to his theory. Beebe describes the different cognitive functions' role in the overall personality in terms of various mythic archetypes. Just as in Myers's table, personality types whose primary four functions are completely opposite are separated by one block along diagonals. The same does not apply to the four "shadow" functions, however.
| Type | ||||
| 1st - Hero/Heroine | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition |
| 2nd - Good Parent | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking |
| 3rd - Puer/Puella | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling |
| 4th - Anima/Animus | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing |
| 5th - Opposing Personality | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition |
| 6th - Senex/Witch | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking |
| 7th - Trickster | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling |
| 8th - Daemon | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing |
| Type | ||||
| 1st - Hero/Heroine | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking |
| 2nd - Good Parent | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition |
| 3rd - Puer/Puella | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing |
| 4th - Anima/Animus | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling |
| 5th - Opposing Personality | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking |
| 6th - Senex/Witch | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition |
| 7th - Trickster | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing |
| 8th - Daemon | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling |
| Type | ||||
| 1st - Hero/Heroine | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition |
| 2nd - Good Parent | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking |
| 3rd - Puer/Puella | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling |
| 4th - Anima/Animus | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing |
| 5th - Opposing Personality | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition |
| 6th - Senex/Witch | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking |
| 7th - Trickster | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling |
| 8th - Daemon | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing |
| Type | ||||
| 1st - Hero/Heroine | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking |
| 2nd - Good Parent | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition |
| 3rd - Puer/Puella | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing |
| 4th - Anima/Animus | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling |
| 5th - Opposing Personality | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking |
| 6th - Senex/Witch | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition |
| 7th - Trickster | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing |
| 8th - Daemon | Extraverted Feelings | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling |
Linda Berens
The layout of Linda Berens's type table is unique and her terminology differs from that of Beebe; however, the ordering of cognitive processes in her and Beebe's models are the same.| Type | ||||
| 1st - Leading/Dominant | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Intuition |
| 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Thinking |
| 3rd - Relief/Unsettling | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Feeling |
| 4th - Aspirational/Projective | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Sensing |
| 5th - Opposing/Backup | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Intuition |
| 6th - Critical/Discovery | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Thinking |
| 7th - Deceiving/Comedic | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Feeling |
| 8th - Devilish/Transformative | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Sensing |
| Type | ||||
| 1st - Leading/Dominant | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Intuition |
| 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Feeling |
| 3rd - Relief/Unsettling | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Thinking |
| 4th - Aspirational/Projective | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Sensing |
| 5th - Opposing/Backup | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Intuition |
| 6th - Critical/Discovery | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Feeling |
| 7th - Deceiving/Comedic | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Thinking |
| 8th - Devilish/Transformative | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Sensing |
| Type | ||||
| 1st - Leading/Dominant | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Sensing |
| 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Thinking |
| 3rd - Relief/Unsettling | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Feeling |
| 4th - Aspirational/Projective | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Intuition |
| 5th - Opposing/Backup | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Sensing |
| 6th - Critical/Discovery | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Thinking |
| 7th - Deceiving/Comedic | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Feeling |
| 8th - Devilish/Transformative | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Intuition |
| Type | ||||
| 1st - Leading/Dominant | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Sensing |
| 2nd - Supporting/Overprotective | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Feeling |
| 3rd - Relief/Unsettling | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Thinking |
| 4th - Aspirational/Projective | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Intuition |
| 5th - Opposing/Backup | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Extraverted Sensing |
| 6th - Critical/Discovery | Extraverted Feeling | Introverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Introverted Feeling |
| 7th - Deceiving/Comedic | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Extraverted Thinking |
| 8th - Devilish/Transformative | Extraverted Intuition | Introverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Introverted Intuition |
Lenore Thomson
Lenore Thomson offers yet another model of the cognitive functions. In her book, Personality Type: An Owners Manual, Thomson advances a hypothesis of a modular relationship of the cognitive functions paralleling left-right brain lateralizationLateralization of brain function
A longitudinal fissure separates the human brain into two distinct cerebral hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum. The sides resemble each other and each hemisphere's structure is generally mirrored by the other side. Yet despite the strong anatomical similarities, the functions of each...
. In this approach the Judging functions are in the front-left and right-back brain and the Perception functions in the right-back and left-front brain. The extraverted functions are in the front of the brain, while the introverted functions are in the back of the brain. The order of the cognitive functions are then determined not by an archetypal hierarchy (as supposed by Beebe) but by an innate brain lateralization preference.
| Brain Types by Lenore Thomson |
|
| Front of Left Brain | Front of Right Brain |
| Extraverted Thinking & Extraverted Feeling |
Extraverted Intuition & Extraverted Sensing |
| Introverted Sensation & Introverted Intuition |
Introverted Feeling & Introverted Thinking |
| Back of Left Brain | Back of Right Brain |
| Type | ||||
| Dominant | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition |
| Secondary | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking |
| Left-brain | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing |
| alternatives | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling |
| Right-brain | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking |
| double agents | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition |
| Tertiary | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling |
| Inferior | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing |
| Type | ||||
| Dominant | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking |
| Secondary | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition |
| Right-brain | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling |
| alternatives | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing |
| Left-brain | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition |
| double agents | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking |
| Tertiary | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing |
| Inferior | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling |
| Type | ||||
| Dominant | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition |
| Secondary | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking |
| Right-brain | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing |
| alternatives | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling |
| Left-brain | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking |
| double agents | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition |
| Tertiary | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling |
| Inferior | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing |
| Type | ||||
| Dominant | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking |
| Secondary | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition |
| Left-brain | Extraverted Feeling | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Thinking | Extraverted Feeling |
| alternatives | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Intuition | Introverted Sensing | Introverted Sensing |
| Right-brain | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition |
| double agents | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking |
| Tertiary | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Intuition | Extraverted Sensing | Extraverted Sensing |
| Inferior | Introverted Feeling | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Thinking | Introverted Feeling |
Further reading
- Jung, C.G. [1921] (1971). Psychological Types, Collected Works, Volume 6, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01813-8.
- Myers, Isabel Myers [1980] (1995). Gifts Differing, Palo Alto, C.A.: Davies-Black Publishing. ISBN 0-89106-074-X.
- Thomson, Lenore (1998). Personality Type: An Owners Manual, Boston & London: Shambhala Publications, Inc. ISBN 1-57062-987-0.