Chibalo
Encyclopedia
Chibalo is the concept of debt bondage
or forced labour in the Ultramar Português (the Portuguese overseas provinces in Africa
and Asia
), most notably in Angola
and Mozambique
(unlike the other European empires of the 20th century, the Portuguese possessions were not considered colonies, but full-fledged province
s of the Portuguese state). In 1869 the Portuguese officially abolished slavery
, but in effect it continued nonetheless. Chibalo was used to build the infrastructure
of the African provinces, as only Portuguese settler
s and assimilado
s received education and were exempt from this forced labour.
According to professor Motsomi Marobela:
Under the New State regime of Antonio de Oliveira Salazar
, chibalo was used in Mozambique
to grow cotton
. The Niassa Company
is an example of the kind of companies that could flourish since they had access to an unpaid labour force. Foreign investment
in the Portuguese overseas provinces was outlawed so that Portugal would benefit directly. All males of proper age had to work in the cotton fields, which became useless for food production, leading to hunger and malnourishment. Chibalo finally ended with the 1974 Carnation Revolution
which overthrew Salazar's government.
Debt bondage
Debt bondage is when a person pledges him or herself against a loan. In debt bondage, the services required to repay the debt may be undefined, and the services' duration may be undefined...
or forced labour in the Ultramar Português (the Portuguese overseas provinces in Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
and Asia
Asia
Asia is the world's largest and most populous continent, located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres. It covers 8.7% of the Earth's total surface area and with approximately 3.879 billion people, it hosts 60% of the world's current human population...
), most notably in Angola
Angola
Angola, officially the Republic of Angola , is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean with Luanda as its capital city...
and Mozambique
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
(unlike the other European empires of the 20th century, the Portuguese possessions were not considered colonies, but full-fledged province
Province
A province is a territorial unit, almost always an administrative division, within a country or state.-Etymology:The English word "province" is attested since about 1330 and derives from the 13th-century Old French "province," which itself comes from the Latin word "provincia," which referred to...
s of the Portuguese state). In 1869 the Portuguese officially abolished slavery
Slavery
Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and sold, and are forced to work. Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase or birth, and deprived of the right to leave, to refuse to work, or to demand compensation...
, but in effect it continued nonetheless. Chibalo was used to build the infrastructure
Infrastructure
Infrastructure is basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or enterprise, or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function...
of the African provinces, as only Portuguese settler
Settler
A settler is a person who has migrated to an area and established permanent residence there, often to colonize the area. Settlers are generally people who take up residence on land and cultivate it, as opposed to nomads...
s and assimilado
Culture of Angola
The culture of Angola is influenced by several ethnicities which shaped the country. Portugal occupied the coastal enclave Luanda, and later also Benguela, since the 16th/17th centuries, occupied the territory of what today in the 19th/20th centuries, and ruled it until 1975. Both countries share...
s received education and were exempt from this forced labour.
According to professor Motsomi Marobela:
At the heart of the collapse of agriculture in Southern Africa was an obnoxious colonial tax system - the hut tax. It was the introduction of this tax that created what Marx called “a reserve army of labour” which was barbarously exploited by mining capital. It was such forced labour that worked colonial plantations and mines. Hence according to Seddon (2002), ‘the term chibalo or chibaro was used commonly in central and southern Africa from the late nineteenth century onwards to describe a variety of oppressive forms of labour introduced by the Europeans.’ In Botswana, for example, men who left for South African mines were said to have gone to makgoeng (to the whites) for a period of six months as migrant labour. Part of their small earnings went to pay the tax. But the consequences of such coerced labour migration were profoundly damaging to native economies which were mainly agrarian.
Under the New State regime of Antonio de Oliveira Salazar
António de Oliveira Salazar
António de Oliveira Salazar, GColIH, GCTE, GCSE served as the Prime Minister of Portugal from 1932 to 1968. He also served as acting President of the Republic briefly in 1951. He founded and led the Estado Novo , the authoritarian, right-wing government that presided over and controlled Portugal...
, chibalo was used in Mozambique
Mozambique
Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique , is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest...
to grow cotton
Cotton
Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective capsule, around the seeds of cotton plants of the genus Gossypium. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. The botanical purpose of cotton fiber is to aid in seed dispersal....
. The Niassa Company
Niassa Company
The Nyassa Company, in Portuguese the Companhia do Nyassa, and sometimes spelled "Niassa", was a royal company in the Portuguese colony of Mozambique, then known as Portuguese East Africa, that had the concession of the lands that include the present provinces of Cabo Delgado and Niassa between...
is an example of the kind of companies that could flourish since they had access to an unpaid labour force. Foreign investment
Investment
Investment has different meanings in finance and economics. Finance investment is putting money into something with the expectation of gain, that upon thorough analysis, has a high degree of security for the principal amount, as well as security of return, within an expected period of time...
in the Portuguese overseas provinces was outlawed so that Portugal would benefit directly. All males of proper age had to work in the cotton fields, which became useless for food production, leading to hunger and malnourishment. Chibalo finally ended with the 1974 Carnation Revolution
Carnation Revolution
The Carnation Revolution , also referred to as the 25 de Abril , was a military coup started on 25 April 1974, in Lisbon, Portugal, coupled with an unanticipated and extensive campaign of civil resistance...
which overthrew Salazar's government.