Biloxi is an extinct Siouan language

Siouan languages

The Western Siouan languages, also called Siouan proper or simply Siouan, are a Native American language family of North America, and the second largest indigenous language family in North America, after Algonquian...

 which was at one time spoken in Mississippi

Mississippi

Mississippi is a U.S. state located in the Southern United States. Jackson is the state capital and largest city. The name of the state derives from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary, whose name comes from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi...

, Louisiana

Louisiana

Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties...

. and southeast Texas

Texas

Texas is the second largest U.S. state by both area and population, and the largest state by area in the contiguous United States.The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in...

.

History

Biloxis first encountered Europeans in 1699 along the Pascagoula River. By the mid-18th century they had settled in central Louisiana. Some were also noted in Texas in the early 19th century. By the early 19th century their numbers were already dwindling, and by 1934 the last native speaker, Emma Jackson, was in her 80s. Morris Swadesh

Morris Swadesh

Morris Swadesh was an influential and controversial American linguist. In his work, he applied basic concepts in historical linguistics to the Indigenous languages of the Americas...

 and Mary Haas

Mary Haas

Mary Rosamund Haas was an American linguist who specialized in North American Indian languages, Thai, and historical linguistics.-Early work in linguistics:...

 spoke with Emma Jackson in 1934 and confirmed her status as a speaker of the language.

Classification

Biloxi is an Ohio Valley, or Southeastern, Siouan language related to Ofo

Ofo Language

The Ofo language was a language spoken by the Mosopelea tribe who lived until c. 1673 in what is now Ohio along the Ohio River, at which time they moved down the Mississippi River to Mississippi, near the Natchez, and thence to Louisiana, near the Tunica....

 and Tutelo.

Sounds

Multiple possible inventories have been suggested; this article follows that of (Einaudi, 1976).

Vowels

Along with contrastive nasalization, Biloxi also had phonemic vowel length.

Biloxi vowels

	Front Front vowel A front vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a front vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far in front as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Front vowels are sometimes also...	Central Central vowel A central vowel is a type of vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a central vowel is that the tongue is positioned halfway between a front vowel and a back vowel...	Back Back vowel A back vowel is a type of vowel sound used in spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a back vowel is that the tongue is positioned as far back as possible in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant. Back vowels are sometimes also called dark...
Close Close vowel A close vowel is a type of vowel sound used in many spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a close vowel is that the tongue is positioned as close as possible to the roof of the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.This term is prescribed by the...	i į		u
Mid Mid vowel A mid vowel is a vowel sound used in some spoken languages. The defining characteristic of a mid vowel is that the tongue is positioned mid-way between an open vowel and a close vowel... 1	e	(ə)2	o ǫ
Open Open vowel An open vowel is defined as a vowel sound in which the tongue is positioned as far as possible from the roof of the mouth. Open vowels are sometimes also called low vowels in reference to the low position of the tongue...		a ą

Phonetic notes:

1. This may be either open-mid or close-mid.
2. Biloxi may have had a phonetic schwa, but neither (Dorsey-Swanton, 1912) nor (Haas, 1968) are consistent in marking it.

Dorsey & Swanton (1912) postulated phonemic vowel length. This was verified by Haas and Swadesh in speaking with Emma Jackson in 1934, their findings appearing in Haas (1968).

Also, there may still be some uncertainty as to whether certain words contain /ą/ or /an/.

Example words

Phoneme	Word	Gloss	Phoneme	Word	Gloss
/i/	ide	'it falls'	/į/	įde	'dung, manure'
/u/	ku	'he gives'	/e/	ane	'louse'
/o/	dohi	'anything rubbed or smeared'	/ǫ/	dǫhi	'he sees'
/a/	da	'he gathers'	/ą/	dą	'he holds'

Consonants

Biloxi consonants

	Bilabial Bilabial consonant In phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a consonant articulated with both lips. The bilabial consonants identified by the International Phonetic Alphabet are:...	Alveolar Alveolar consonant Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli of the superior teeth...	Postalveolar Postalveolar consonant Postalveolar consonants are consonants articulated with the tongue near or touching the back of the alveolar ridge, further back in the mouth than the alveolar consonants, which are at the ridge itself, but not as far back as the hard palate...	Velar Velar consonant Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum)....	Glottal Glottal consonant Glottal consonants, also called laryngeal consonants, are consonants articulated with the glottis. Many phoneticians consider them, or at least the so-called fricative, to be transitional states of the glottis without a point of articulation as other consonants have; in fact, some do not consider...
Stop Stop consonant In phonetics, a plosive, also known as an occlusive or an oral stop, is a stop consonant in which the vocal tract is blocked so that all airflow ceases. The occlusion may be done with the tongue , lips , and &...	p b1	t d	c ([tʃ])	k
Fricative Fricative consonant Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These may be the lower lip against the upper teeth, in the case of ; the back of the tongue against the soft palate, in the case of German , the final consonant of Bach; or...	f ([ɸ])1	s	š ([ʃ])1	x	h
Nasal Nasal consonant A nasal consonant is a type of consonant produced with a lowered velum in the mouth, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. Examples of nasal consonants in English are and , in words such as nose and mouth.- Definition :...	m	n
Approximant Approximant consonant Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough or with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no...	w	y

Phonetic notes:

1. marginal status

Biloxi may also have had a phonemic aspiration distinction for some segments.

Example words

Phoneme	Word	Gloss	Phoneme	Word	Gloss	Phoneme	Word	Gloss
/p/	pa	'head'	/m/	ma	'ground'	/w/	wa	'very'
/t/	ti	'house'	/c/	ci	'they lie down'	/s/	si	'yellow'
/k/	ką	'when'	/x/	xą	'where'	/h/	hą	'and'
/d/	de	'he went'	/n/	ne	'he stands'	/y/	yahe	'this'

Marginal phonemes

Phoneme	Examples
/b/
/f/
/š/	koniška 'bottle' kšixka 'hog'

Phonotactics

Syllable structure is (C)(C)(C)V(C) or (C)V(C)(C). However, clusters of three consonants are rare.

Most words end in a vowel. Ones which don't usually end in /k/ or /x/ as a result of deletion, e.g. tox from toho 'he fell'.

Consonant clusters usually don't end syllables. When they do, it's probably caused by vowel deletion, e.g. tohoxk from tohoxka 'horse'.

The following consonant clusters are observed:

2-Element Clusters

	p	t	d	c	k	s	x	h	m	n	w	y
p		x		x	x	x	x			?
t	x				x	x	x		?		x	x
d								?
c	x	x			x
k	x	x	x	x		x	x			x	x	x
s	x	x	x	x	x					x
x	x	x	x	x	x						x	x
h
m
n		x	x			?	x					x
w
y

It may be noted that geminates do not occur, besides /n/ sonorants and probably /d/ only occur as the second elements of clusters, /h/ and /m/ are never the second element, and fricatives do not co-occur.

There are a few three-consonant clusters, all of the form C+s+stop or C+x+glide and some with alternate forms:
pst

pstuki~pastuki 'she sews'

psd

psdehi~psudehi 'knife' (also spdehi)

tsp

atspąhi 'it adheres' (hadespapahi?)

tsk

kutska~kudeska 'fly'

ątska 'infant'

kst

aksteke 'he is stingy'

nsk

apadenska 'butterfly'

pxw

pxwe~pxe 'he punches'

txy

akutxyi 'letter'

kxw

xoxo kxwehe 'he sits on a swing'

įkxwe 'always'

kxy

pukxyi 'loop'

Morphophonemics

There are many verb roots and two mode markers with the morphophonemically conditioned alternation e~a~i (underlying ||E||). Included in them are:

• dE 'go'
• andE, yukE 'be'
• yE 'cause'
• E 'say'

and the mode markers:

• tE '[optative mode marker]'
• dandE '[potential mode marker]'

The alternation depends on the following morpheme:

	E	> /a/ /___:		E	> /i/ /___:		E	> /e/
hi, hortatory mode marker dandE, potential mode marker ni, negative imperative mode; embedded negative mode marker Ø, imperative mode marker (female to female) te, imperative mode marker (female to male) xo, subjunctive mode marker na, strong negative imperative mode marker xą, ? ǫ, ǫni, completive mode marker	xti, intensifier	elsewhere

Nouns and verbs whose stems end in -Vhi or -Vhį change to -Vx before the plural marker -tu:

||anahį + tu|| > /anaxtu/ 'their hair'.

This may optionally also occur with duti 'to eat' also:

||duti + tu|| > /dutitu/~/duxtu/ 'they eat'.

This rule may optionally also apply in compounds and across word boundaries when the next element starts with CV:

||asąhi + nǫpa|| > /asąx nǫpa/ 'both arms'.

Nouns ending in -di which can undergo pluralization change to -x, e.g. ||adi + tu|| > /axtu/ 'their father'.

Verbs whose stems end in -Vki, -Vpi, or -si optionally lose their -i before the plural marker.

||pastuki + tu|| > /pastuktu/ 'they sew'

||duhapi + tu|| > /duhaptu/ 'they pulled it off her head'

||dusi + tu|| > /dustu/ 'they grabbed'.

||k(i)|| > x/___k may occur optionally across morpheme or word boundaries.

||ay + nk + kiduwe|| > ||yąk + kiduwe|| > /yąxkiduwe/ 'you untie me'

||mąki ką|| > /mąx ką/ 'when it was reclining'

but ||yąk + kinitą + xti|| > /yąkinitą xti/ 'it is too large for me'.

This rule may cause the previous vowel to denasalize.

||ay + nk + kica daha|| > ||yąk + kica daha|| > /yaxkica daha/ 'you have not forgotten us'

||mąki kide|| > /max kide/ 'he sat until'.

Verbs whose stems end in -ti or -hi may optionally change to -x before the negative mode marker ni.

||kohi + ni|| > /kox ni/ 'they were unwilling'.

Stems ending in -si optionally become -s.

||nk + Ø + kidusi + ni|| > ||axkidusi + ni|| > /axkidus ni/ 'I did not take it from him'.

The dative marker ki becomes kiy before a vowel.

||ki + E + tu|| > /kiyetu/ 'they said to him'.

(However, Einaudi cites one counter example, ||ki + į|| > /kiį/ 'they were drinking it for him', perhaps with a glottal stop inserted.)

The following rule is optional in compounds and across word boundaries, and obligatory everywhere else:

V₁V₁ > V₁

V₁V₂ > V₂

||ku + ay + ǫni + ni|| > /kayǫ ni/ 'you do not make it'

||tątǫ + ahi|| > /tątahi/ 'panther skin'.

However, there are a couple of words with two adjacent vowels: naǫ 'day', hauti 'be sick', etc.

Two morphophonemically identical syllables may not appear contiguously, and if this is going to occur the first is dropped.

||ku + ku ni|| > /ku ni/ 'she does not give'.

Einaudi finds one counter-example, ||kite + te|| > /kite te/ 'she wanted to hit him'.

C₁C₁ > C₁

||ca ha + ay + YE|| > ||ca hay + YE|| > /ca haye/ 'you kill'.

The following rule optionally applies to compounds:

XV#CY > XCY

||cake + pocka|| > /cakpocka/ 'hand + round' = 'fist'.

This rule can lead to otherwise disallowed clusters, including geminates.

||ayapi + pa + są|| > /ayappasa/ 'eagle + head + white' = 'bald eagle

Bald Eagle

The Bald Eagle is a bird of prey found in North America. It is the national bird and symbol of the United States of America. This sea eagle has two known sub-species and forms a species pair with the White-tailed Eagle...

'

||ndesi + xidi|| > /ndesxidi/ 'snake + chief' = 'rattlesnake'.

The following rule applies to compounds:

Vn#C > V̨#C

||dani + hudi|| > ||dan + hudi|| > /dąhudi/ 'eight'.

The following rules are conditioned by person markers on nouns and verbs:

Stems beginning with /h/ and some beginning with /y/ (morphophonemically distinguished as ||Y||) undergo the following (obligatory for h-stems, optional for Y-stems):
||Y, h|| > ∅ / ||nk||___, ||ay||___

||nk + Yehǫ + ni|| > /nkehǫni/ 'I know'

||nk + hu + di|| > /nkudi/ 'I come from'.

However, this does not apply for y-initial (rather than Y-initial) stems:

||nk + yaǫni|| > /nkyaǫni/ 'I sing'.

The next rule applies before roots and the dative marker ki:
||nk|| > /x/ /___k

||nk + ku|| > /xku/ 'I come back hither', ||nk + ki + ku|| > /xkiku/ 'I gave him'

||nk|| > /ǫ/ /___n (and optionally /m/, /p/)

||nk + nąki|| > /ǫnąki/ 'I sit'

||nk + pxitu|| > /ǫpxitu/ 'we cheat'

||nk|| > /n/ /___other consonants (optional except before /p/ – and for /m/ unless covered by the previous rule)

||nk + yą ni|| > /nyą ni/ 'I hate him'

but ||nk + sįto|| > /nksįto/ 'I am a boy'

||nk|| > /nk/ /___V

||nk + ǫ|| > /nkǫ/ 'I make'

(optionally) ||ay|| > /aya~ya/ /___k,x

||ay + kide|| > /yakide/ 'you go home'

||ay + kitupe|| > /ayakitupe/ 'you carry on your shoulder'

||ay|| > /i/ /___C

||ay + duti + tu|| > ||ay + duxtu|| > /iduxtu/ 'you pl. eat'

||ay|| > /ay~y~iy/ /___V

||ay + įsihi + xti|| > /ayįsihi xti/ 'you fear greatly'

||ay + andE hi ni|| > /yanda hi ni/ 'you shall be so'

||ay + E|| > /iye/ 'you say'.

Use of different allomorphs in free variation is attested for at least some verbs.

The next four rules combine personal affixes, and thus only apply to verbs:
||nk + ay|| > /į/ /___C

||nk + ay + naxtE|| > /įnaxte/ 'I kick you'

||nk + ay|| > /ny/ /___V

||nk + ay + įdahi|| > /nyįdahi/ 'I seek you'

||nk + ∅|| > /ax/ /___k

||nk + Ø + kte|| > /axkte/ 'I hit him'

||ay + nk|| > /yąk/ (which may undergo further changes as described above)

||ay + nk + dusi|| > /yandusi/ 'you take me'

The subjunctive mode marker ||xo|| undergoes the following rule:
||xo|| > /xyo/ / i___ / į___

||ǫ nani xyo|| 'she must have done it'

The habitual mode marker ||xa|| optionally undergoes the following rule:
||xa|| > /xya/ / V^f___

||ande xa|| > /ande xya/ 'she is always so'

but ||nkaduti te xa|| > /nkaduti te xa/ 'I am still hungry'

The auxiliary ande undergoes the following rule:
||ande|| > /ant/ / ___k

||nkande kąca|| > /nkant kąca/ 'I was, but'

Morphology

The three word classes in Biloxi are verbs, substantives (nouns and pronouns), and particles. The first two take affixes, while the last cannot.

Verbs are always marked for person and number, and may also take dative, reciprocal

Reciprocal (grammar)

A reciprocal is a linguistic structure that marks a particular kind of relationship between two noun phrases. In a reciprocal construction, each of the participants occupies both the role of agent and patient with respect to each other...

, reflexive

Reflexive

Reflexive may refer to:In fiction:*MetafictionIn grammar:*Reflexive pronoun, a pronoun with a reflexive relationship with its self-identical antecedent*Reflexive verb, where a semantic agent and patient are the same...

, and/or instrumental

Instrumental

An instrumental is a musical composition or recording without lyrics or singing, although it might include some non-articulate vocal input; the music is primarily or exclusively produced by musical instruments....

 markers, as well as mode markers, the object specifier, and auxiliaries. They occur finally or penultimately in clauses.

All nominal affixes may also be used with verbs; however, nouns may be defined as the set of words which may only use a subset of the verbal affixes. They may not use dative, reciprocal, reflexive, or instrumental markers, nor mode markers or auxiliaries.

Particles serve many functions including noun phrase marking and acting as adverbials.

Nouns

Nouns may either be inflectable or non-inflectable. The large majority belong to the latter class.

The former group inflects for person and number. It contains names of body parts and kin terms, which must inflect, and a few other personal possessions for which inflection is optional. The person markers are:

nk- 1st person

ay- 2nd person

Ø- 3rd person

These may be pluralized with the marker -tu. The noun's number itself is not marked explicitly.

Examples of inflected nouns include:

dodi 'throat'

ndodi 'my throat'

idodi 'your throat'

doxtu 'their throats'

adi 'father'

iyadi 'your father'

nkaxtu 'our father'

Examples of optionally inflected nouns include:

ti~ati 'house'

nkti/nkati 'my house'

doxpe 'shirt'

idoxpe 'your shirt'

Personal pronouns are formed by inflecting the root indi for person and number. (At one point this may also have been done with the demonstratives he and de.) Pronouns are always optional, and serve to express greater emphasis. Singular pronouns may occur as either the subject or the object, while the plurals may only occur as subjects (see -daha).

Biloxi pronouns

nkindi 'I'	nkįxtu 'we'
ayindi 'you'	ayįxtu 'you all'
indi1 'he, she, it'	įxtu2 'they'

1. in free variation with ind and int before /h/
2. in free variation with įxt before /h/

Biloxi has two common demonstratives, de 'this' and he 'that'. They may be marked for plurality as denani and henani, but this is very rare since they are only used when plurality is unmarked elsewhere, and plurality is marked on the verb in noun phrases with classificatory verbs:

ąya atąhį amą de 'these running men'

Verbs

Verbs inflect for person (1st, 2nd, 3rd), number (singular vs. plural), and mode (many possibilities, including some less-well understood mode markers).

Morphemes within verbs have the following order:

Verbal morpheme order

(ku)	person	thematic	dative, reciprocal, reflexive	instrumentals	root	number1	mode

1. Very occasionally an enclitic will proceed -tu, e.g. supi xti tu 'they are very black'.

Verbs may either be classificatory or normal. Classificatory verbs specify the subject's position (sitting, standing, etc.) and differ from normal verbs in that the first person is not inflected for person.

Inflection for person and number is identical to inflected nouns:

nk- 1st person

ay- 2nd person

Ø- 3rd person

-tu pluralizes referent of prefix (not used for inanimate subjects)

Because of the rules determining the surface manifestations of some combinations of person markers, 2nd person on 1st and 3rd person on 1st forms are identical, e.g. yaxtedi 'you hit me, he hit me'. Also, 2nd person subj., 2nd person on 3rd, and 3rd person on 2nd are identical, e.g. idǫhi 'you see, you see him, they see you'.

-tu marks animate plurality (except with some motion verbs).

įkcatu ni 'we have not forgotten you'

nkyehǫtu ni 'we did not know'

However, -tu is not used:

1. In the presence of the plural auxiliary yuke 'are':

   dǫhi yuke 'they were looking at it'

2. When the sentence has already been marked as plural:

   aditu ką, hidedi nedi 'they climbed up, and were falling continually'

3. If it is followed by a plural motion verb:

   dą kahi hą 'they took it and were returning'

Some (but not all) verbs of motion mark plurality with the prefix a- inserted directly before the root:

de 'he goes'

nkade 'we go, ayade 'you (pl.) go', ade 'they go'

kide 'he goes homeward'

xkade 'we go homeward'

But there are counterexamples (even ones derived from the same roots):

kade 'he goes thither'

xkadetu 'we go thither', ikadetu 'you (pl.) go thither'

daha marks plural objects when they are not specified elsewhere. It comes after -tu and before all mode markers.

Examples:

de ya daha 'he sent them

yacǫ daha ǫni 'she named them (in the past)'

There are two examples of daha being reduced to ha:

įkte ha dande 'I will kick you (pl.)'

nyiku ha dande 'I will give it to you (pl.)'

a- may be added to some verb roots to mark an unspecified indefinite object:

ki 'carry on back'

nkaki 'I carried something on my back

da 'gather'

nkada 'I gather things'

Mode markers

There are many mode markers in Biloxi. Some are common and well understood, while others are infrequent and have elusive meanings.

Mode markers

Mode		Marker	Position		Examples	Comments
			Follows:	Precedes:
Declarative mode		na, male speaker ni, female speaker	always last		na: nka dande na 'I will say it' hetinyǫ nyukedi na 'we are just going to do so to you' ni: nkadutedą ni 'I have finished eating' įkowa įdahi otu ni 'they themselves hunt and shoot it'	Usage is optional: taneks nkąxti 'I am a Biloxi woman' cǫki itak nąki 'you dog sits' (= 'you have a dog')
Interrogative mode		wo, male speaker ∅, female speaker	always last (never appears with declarative)		wo: etikįnyǫni wo 'did I do that to you?' iyixǫ wo 'have you had enough?' ayą ade wo 'does the wood burn?' ∅: kihaki cidike yukedi 'what kin are they two?' ayą ade 'does the wood burn?'	It is unclear what sort of intonation accompanied the interrogative.
Hortatory mode		hi		na (or wo)	te hiyetu hi na 'you must kill him' nyiku hi ni 'I shall give it to you'	Almost always appears before declarative na/ni, but there's one example of it before wo: kawa nkǫ ta hi wo 'what will (we) wish to do?' Also, it may appear on its own in embedded sentence: ani ndǫ ni nkanda hi yihi 'he thought I should not see the water'
Potential mode		dande	tu daha	na xe	adutik kikǫ daha dande 'he will make food for them' nka dande na 'I will say it'
Optative mode		tE1	tu daha	dande ǫ wo hi ni	yąxkiyoxpa te yayukedi 'you (pl.) are wishing to drink it up for me' pis te xti ande 'she strongly desires to suckle'	te almost always follows -tu, but there is a counter-example: te ye te tu ką 'when they wished to kill him' cf. te hiyetu te ko 'when they wished to kill you'
Subjunctive mode		xo~xyo2	always last		kedi xyo 'he must (?) dig it alone įnaxta xo 'I will kick you, if'	Semantic force is in question. Involves potentiality and contingency ('... if/provided). nani 'can' may appear before 'xyo', lending it the meaning 'must' or 'must have': ǫ nani xyo 'she must have done it' ede te yake daha yandi nani xyo 'this must be the one who killed us'
Habitual mode		xya~xa3	Everything except...	... na/ni	supixtitu xa 'they are usually very black tiduwi xa 'he alights' nkakiyasi xa na 'I always liked it' (masc.) nkint ko yinisa ndux ni xa ni 'I never eat buffalo meat' (fem.)	Habitual and declarative combined are sometimes glossed as 'can': tąhį xa na 'he can run' (if he wishes) akutxyi nkǫ xa na 'I can write'
Negative mode		(ku)...ni			kudǫxtu ni xti 'they could not see them at all' ayį ni dande 'you shall not drink'	It's unclear when ku is needed. It is used for stems ending in -ni and with the feminine declarative marker ni4. The negative form of the verb duti 'eat' is kdux ni 'he did not eat', and not the expected kudux ni.
Imperative mode	Positive	ta, male speaker to male addressee di, male speaker to female addressee te, female speaker to male addressee ∅, probably used to address children, possibly also female speaker to female addressee xye na, first person plural	stem (+ number marker)		ta eyąhį ta 'come!' adǫxtu ta 'look!' (you all) di akanaki daca di 'come out and gnaw on it!' dupaxi di 'open the door!' te dǫxtu te 'you all look!' dǫ te 'look at him!' ∅ yąxkiduwa 'untie me!' (sun to child) ndao hu hą sinihǫ duti hąca 'come here and eat much with me!' (fem. to fem.) xye na te ye xye na 'let us kill her!'	The plural marker -tu (or a-) is used for plural addressees, and person markers mark objects (except for 2nd person negative imperative). There is one example of the person marker omitted from the (ku)...ni imperative: kąhą ni 'do not cry!'
	Negative	na5; second person strong negative (ku)...ni (the regular indicative form)			na yada na 'beware lest you all go!' ayį na 'do not drink it!' (ku)...ni ayįktu ni 'do not (ye) let him go!' akohi ina ni 'do not stand in the yard!'
	Rare	hi ko5; "deferential" dki~tki6 (possibly for female addressees) ką	hi ko: same as hi (potential mode marker)		hi ko eke xyi dį ini hi ko 'well, why don't you want (as you have been talking about it for so long!)' ayįxtu ikada hi ko 'you go home yourselves (instead of telling us to do so!)' dki~tki ayindi ded ki 'you go yourself!' (male to female) ini te xti ko, nit ki 'well, walk (as you are so persistent!)' ką duxtą aku ką 'pull it and bring it here!' de dǫx ką cidike yuke 'go and see how they are!'
Dubitative mode Dubitative mood Dubitative mood is an epistemic grammatical mood found in some languages, that indicates that the statement is dubious, doubtful, or uncertain. It may subsist as a separate morphological category, as in Bulgarian, or else as a category of use of another form, as of the conditional mood of...		ha		na/ni	yihixtitu ha ni 'they might have the most' (fem.) kiyetu kąca ha na 'they must have told her'	Meaning somewhat uncertain due to limited data. Appears adjacent to na/ni like hi, but unlike it it does this even in embedded sentences.
Strong declarative mode		xye, masc speaker xe, female speaker	xye: follows dande	xe: precedes xo	xye nitani xye 'it is large' ade ixyǫtu xye 'they talk very rapidly' xe itoho ko nitani xe 'the log is large' nkapa nedi xe 'my head aches'	Stronger semantic force than na/ni. xye/xe may be followed by xo, but it's unclear whether this lends additional meaning: nda dande xye xo 'I will go whether he wishes or not'
Inferential mode		yeke	dande	na	anik wahetu yeke 'they must have gone into the water' kide yeke na 'he must have gone home'	Most often used with a declarative marker.
Intensification		wa			ksixtu wa 'they are very crazy' nkaduti wa nkande 'I am ever eating'	It is unclear exactly how wa differs from xti (see below). It is possible that xti means 'very' while wa means 'so'. wa sometimes may be glossed as 'always'.
Completive mode		ǫ~ǫni	te xti	xa	ǫ eyąhi ǫ he got there (long ago) atuka kitani ǫ 'the raccoon was first (in the past)' ǫni kitsąya yą tanaki utoho ǫni 'the American first lay in it (in the past)' ani yą hu ǫni 'the water was coming'	Emphasizes that the event occurred in the past. ǫ often is followed by xa, which may be glossed either as the expected 'regularly in the past', or 'in the remote past': kide ǫ xa 'she went home (in the remote past)' etikǫtu ǫ xa 'they did so (regularly in the past'
Superlative mode		xti	occurs immediately after whatever is being intensified		supi xti tu 'they are very black' tca yi xti ande 'he was killing all'	xti may be used with adverbs: ewite xti 'very early in the morning' kuhi xti 'very high'

1. With morphophonemic ||E||, see above
2. ||xo|| > ||xyo|| / i___ / į___ (see above)
3. ||xa|| > ||xya|| / V^f___ optionally (see above)
4. because ||ni + ni|| > /ni/, see above
5. requires person marker
6. Stems ending in -di lose -i and gain -ki, others just gain tki

Nouns

Nouns may be derived either through nominalizing verbs or by compounding.

Verbs are nominalized via the prefix a-:

sǫ 'sharp at all ends'

asǫ 'briar'

duti 'eat'

aduti 'food'

Compound nounds may either be formed by combining two nouns or a noun and a verb. (Some morphophonemic rules are involved, see above.)

noun + noun:

||cindi + aho|| > /cindaho/ 'hip + bone' = 'hip bone'

||peti + ti|| > /petiti/ 'fire + house' = 'fireplace'

noun + verb:

||sǫpxi + ǫni|| > /sǫpxǫni/ 'flour + make' = 'wheat'

||ąyadi + ade|| > /ąyadiade/ 'people + talk' = 'language'

Pronouns

For the personal pronoun indi, see above. įkowa may be used as a reflexive pronoun. It is possible that both of these, and perhaps the reflexive pronoun -įxki- (see below) are derived from a root in.

Interrogatives

A number of interrogatives come from the prefix ca- (with vowel elision following morphophonemic rules):

cak~caką 'where?'

cane 'where (stands)?'

canaska 'how long?'

cehedą 'how high, tall, deep?'

cidike 'which, how, why?'

cina~cinani 'how many'

Some are derived from pronouns:

kawa 'something, anything'

kawak 'what?'

cina 'a few, many'

cinani 'how many?'

Verbs

Verbal derivation may either occur via root derivation (reduplication

Reduplication

Reduplication in linguistics is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word is repeated exactly or with a slight change....

 and compounding) or stem derivation (thematic prefixes, dative markers, reciprocals, reflexives, and instrumentals.)

Reduplication

Reduplication, common in Biloxi, is used either to convey intensification or distributiveness. Usually, the first CVC of the root is reduplicated, but sometimes this only happens to the first CV.

cakcake 'he hung up a lot'

cake 'hang up on a nail or post'

tixtixye '(his heart) was beating'

tix 'beat'

xoxoki 'he broke it here and there'

xoki 'break'

ǫnacpicpi 'my feet are slipping'

cpi 'slip'

Compounding

Verbal compounds may either be of the form noun + verb or verb + verb.

It seems that the majority of noun-verb compounds are formed using the verb ǫ 'do, make':

||ką + k + ǫ|| > /kąkǫ/ 'string + make' = 'trap'

||cikide + ǫ|| > /cidikǫ/ 'which = do' = 'which to do (how)'

||ta + o|| > /tao/ 'deer + shoot' = 'shoot deer'

Examples of verb-verb compounds:

hane + o /haneotu/ 'they find and shoot'

kte + ǫ /įkteǫni/ 'with + hit + do' = 'to hit with'

Note that some of the above compounds wind up having adjacent vowels, since syncope in compounds is optional.

Thematic prefixes

Thematic prefixes come after person markers and before dative markers and instrumentals.

Thematic prefixes

Prefix	Meaning	Examples	Comments
a-	habitual action	dǫ 'see' kadǫ ni 'he never sees' (=blind) duse 'bite' aduse 'he bites habitually'
	directional indicator: 'there, on'	dǫhi 'look' adǫxtu ta 'look!' (male to males) yihi 'think' ayihi 'he thought'
	transivitizer	hį 'arrive' ahįtu 'they took her there' kuhi 'high' akuhitu 'they raised it'
į-	instrumental prefix, 'with'		ayą + į + duko	> /ayįduko/ 'tree + with + whip' = 'whip against a tree'	į + das + k + ǫ	> /įdaskǫ/ 'with + back + obj. + do' = 'sit with one's back to'
u-	'within a given area'	toho 'lie town' utoho 'he lay in it' kci 'dodge about' unakcikci de 'he went dodging about (the house)'

Dative, reciprocal, and reflexive markers

The dative marker ki- (kiy- before vowels) is used after thematic prefixes.

kiyetu 'they said to him'

kidǫhi ye daha 'he showed it to them'

It is peculiar in that it may be used when body parts or animals belonging to someone are the direct object (the "dative of possession").

kiduxtą 'they pulled his [tail]'

kidǫhi '[they] saw his [shadow]'

kidǫhi 'she looked at her [head]'

It appears as kik- before ǫ 'do, make', and gives it a benefactive gloss (kikǫ daha 'he made for them'). (Do not mistake this for kiki-.)

The reduplicated kiki- marks reciprocity. This only makes sense if the verb is plural, so the plural marker -tu is not mandatory.

kikiyohǫ 'they were calling to one another'

kikidǫhi 'they were looking at one another'

įxki- (or ixki-, perhaps because of the denasalizing morphopohnemic rule, above) marks reflexives. It normally comes immediately after person markers, but in some 3rd person cases ki- may come before it:

įxkiyadu ye ande 'he was wrapping it around himself'

kixkidicatu 'they wash themselves'

Instrumental prefixes

Instrumentals serve to mark how the event was carried out. They immediately precede the root.

Biloxi instrumentals

Prefix	Meaning	Examples
da-	'with the mouth or teeth'	dasi 'he (turkey' took it with his mouth' dauxitu1 'they bite it off'
du-	'with the hand(s), claws, etc.'	iduwe 'you untie it' kiduptasi ye 'he caused it to become flat for him'
duk(u)-	'by hitting or punching'	dukxoxoki '(they) knocked it to pieces' adukuxke 'he peels vegetables'
na-	'with the foot'	naxte 'he kicked it' naksedi 'he broke (a stick) with his foot'
pa-	'by pushing'	paya 'she was plowing' pawehi 'he knocked them'
pu2	'pushing or punching'	pucpi 'he failed in pushing or punching' (synonymous with dukucpi)
di2	'by rubbing or pressing between the hands'	diputwi 'he made it crumble by pressing it between his hands' kixkidica 'he washes himself'

1. Einaudi speculates that V₁V₂ is not removed here because of possible ambiguity.
2. Only traces of these prefixes remain.

Adverbs

Adverbs may be derived from connectives, pronouns, and verbs and particles via a number of affixes:

Adverbial affixes

Affix	Meaning	Examples
e-	'and (?), the aforesaid (?)'	ede	e + de	'just now' ewa	e + wa	'in that direction' ewitexti	e + wite + xti	'very early in the morning' ema	e + ma	'right there'
ke-	(?)	kecana	ke + cana	'again' kecumana	ke + cumana	'again'
kuhi-	'high'	kuhadi	kuhi + adi	'upstairs'
ndo-	'hither'	ndao	ndo + ao	(?) 'hither' ndosąhį	ndo + sąhį	'on this side of' ndoku	ndo + ku	'back hither' ndowa	ndo + wa	'this way'
ewa-	'there'	eusąhį	ewa + sąhį	'on the other side of'
-wa	'locative ending'	ewa	e + wa	'in that direction' hewa	he + e + wa	'that way' kowa	ko + wa	'further along' ndowa	ndo + wa	'this way'
-yą	(?)	extiyą	e + xti + yą	'at a distance' eyą	e + yą	'there' heyą	he + e + yą	'there' ndosąhįyą	ndo + sąhį + yą	'on this side of'

Connectives

There are various instances of derived connectives:
e- 'and (?), the aforesaid (?)'

ehą ||e + hą|| 'and then'

eką ||e + ką|| 'and then'

eke ||e + ke||(?) 'and so'

eke 'so' (probably derived itself, see above)

ekedi ||eke + di|| 'that is why'

ekehą ||eke + hą|| 'and then'

ekeką ||eke + ką|| 'and then'

ekeko ||eke + ko|| 'well'

ekeǫnidi ||eke + ǫni + di|| 'therefore'

Numerals

Derived numbers contain predictable vowel syncope (see above).

1-10

Biloxi	Qiloqano	Gloss
sǫsa	sǫs	'one'
nǫpa	nǫpa	'two'
dani	dani	'three'
topa	thory	'four'
ksani	kse	'five'
akuxpe	akuxpe	'six'
nąpahudi1	nąpahudi1	'seven'
dąhudi1	dąhudi1	'eight'
ckane	ckan	'nine'
ohi	ohi	'ten'

1. may be derived from ||nǫpa + ahudi|| 'two + bones' and ||dani + ahudi|| 'three + bones'

11-19 are derived via the formula 'X sitting on Y' ('Y Xaxehe').

11-19

Biloxi	Gloss
ohi sǫsaxehe	'eleven' (='one sitting on ten')
ohi nǫpaxehe	'twelve'
ohi danaxehe	'thirteen'
ohi topaxehe	'fourteen'
ohi ksanaxehe	'fifteen'
ohi akuxpaxehe	'sixteen'
ohi nąpahu axehe	'seventeen'
ohi dąxu axehe	'eighteen'
ohi ckanaxehe	'nineteen'

20-99 are derived via the formula 'X sitting on Y Zs' ('Z Y Xaxehe')

20-99

Biloxi	Gloss
ohi nǫpa	'twenty' (='two tens')
ohi nǫpa sǫsaxehe	'21' (='one sitting on two tens')
ohi dani	'30'
ohi dani sǫsaxehe	'31', etc.
ohi topa	'40'
ohi ksani	'50'
ohi akuxpe	'60'
ohi nąpahudi	'70'
ohi dąhudi	'80'
ohi ckane	'90'

100-1000 and 1/2

Biloxi	Gloss
tsipa	'100'
tsipa sǫsaxehe	'101' (='one sitting on 100'), etc.
tsipa ohi sǫsaxehe	'111', etc.
tsipa nǫpa	'200'
tsipa dani	'300'
tsipa topa	'400'
tsipa dani	'500'
tsipa akuxpe	'600'
tsipa nąpahudi	'700'
tsipa dąhudi	'800'
tsipa ckane	'900'
tsipįciyą	'1000' ('old man hundred')
ukikįke1	'one half'

1. shows up twice as kįkįke

Ordinal numerals (1st, 2nd, 3rd) are not attested. To express 'once', 'twice', 'three times', etc.', use the verb de 'to go' before cardinal numbers:

de sǫsa 'once'

de nǫpa 'twice'

de dani 'three times'

de topa 'four times'

de ksani 'five times'

To form multiplicatives, use akipta 'to double' before cardinal numbers:

akipta nǫpa 'twofold'

akipta dani 'threefold'

akipta topa 'fourfold'

akipta ohi 'tenfold'

akipta tsipa 'one hundredfold'

Syntax

Biloxi is a left-branching SOV

SOV

SOV is an acronym for several terms:in organizations*Same Old Vanderbilt, usually refers to Vanderbilt Commodores football by their fans due to lack of success over the years*Stade Olympique Voironnais, a French rugby union club...

 language.

Its lexical categories include interjection

Interjection

In grammar, an interjection or exclamation is a word used to express an emotion or sentiment on the part of the speaker . Filled pauses such as uh, er, um are also considered interjections...

s (I), adverbial

Adverbial

In grammar an adverbial is a word or a group of words that modifies or tells us something about the sentence or the verb. The word adverbial is also used as an adjective, meaning 'having the same function as an adverb'...

s (A), subject

Subject (grammar)

The subject is one of the two main constituents of a clause, according to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle and that is associated with phrase structure grammars; the other constituent is the predicate. According to another tradition, i.e...

s (S), object

Object (grammar)

An object in grammar is part of a sentence, and often part of the predicate. It denotes somebody or something involved in the subject's "performance" of the verb. Basically, it is what or whom the verb is acting upon...

s (O), verbs (V), and connectives (C).

The three types of phrases are:

1. interjectory phrases: I with pauses before and after it

   tenaxi 'Oh friend!'

2. postpositional phrase: pp N (yą)/(de) (see below)

   doxpe itka 'inside a coat'

3. noun phrase: any S or O (see below)

   ayek ita 'your corn'

There are dependent

Dependent clause

In linguistics, a dependent clause is a clause that augments an independent clause with additional information, but which cannot stand alone as a sentence. Dependent clauses modify the independent clause of a sentence or serve as a component of it...

 and independent clause

Independent clause

An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself, also known as a simple sentence. An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate; it makes sense by itself....

s, and major and minor sentences. (see below)

Interjectory particles

aci 'o no!'

he he 'hello!'

nu: 'help!'

ux 'pshaw!'

Animal cries

a: a: 'caw'

pes pes 'cry of the tiny frog'

taǫ 'cry of the squealer duck'

tį 'cry of the sapsucker'

Vocatives

Vocatives are almost always unmarked:

kǫkǫ 'O grandmother!'

kǫni 'O mother!'

cidikuna 'Oh Cidikuna!'

There are only three exceptions:

tata 'Oh father!' (suppletive – the regular stem meaning 'father' is adi)

nyąxohi 'Oh wife!' (literally 'my old lady')

nyąįcya 'Oh husband!' (literally 'my old man')

Adverbials

Adverbials most often appear directly before the verb, but they may also act as subjects and object. They may not follow verbs or precede connectives in sentence-initial position.

Adverbials may be:

Adverbial particles

Some particles:

tohanak 'yesterday'

emą 'right there'

eyą 'there'

kiya 'again'

yąxa 'almost'

(Also, see "adverbs", above.)

Usage examples:

skakanadi ewitexti eyąhį yuhi' 'the Ancient of Opossums thought he would reach there very early in the morning'

ekeką kiya dedi 'and then he went again'

ndao ku di 'come back here!' (male to female)

tohanak wahu 'yesterday it snowed'

Postpositional phrases

(For vowel elision, see above.)

Biloxi postpositions

Postposition	Gloss	Example(s)
itka	'in, among'	hawitka de nąki dande na 'I will sit here among the leaves'
kuya~okaya	'under'	ayahi kuya 'under the bed' yaxǫ okaya 'underneath the chair' ayahi okaya 'under the bed'
nata	'middle of'	ani nata akuwe 'they came forth from the middle of the water'
(u)wa	'into, towards'	įkanąk wa de 'toward sunrise'
yaskiya12	'under'	ti yaskiya 'under the house'
yehi~yehi ką~yehi yą	'close to'	ani yehi da ǫni 'he was going to the edge of the water' ani kyahǫ yehi ką 'close to the well' ayohi yehi yą 'close to the lake'
acka	'near'	ąxu acka xti 'by the stone' (very near)
eusąhį3~sąhį	'beyond'	ąxu eusąhį 'on the other side of the stone'
ndosąhį	'on this side of'	ąxu ndosąhį 'on this side of the stone'
tawi	'on, on top of'	ąxu tawi yą 'on the stone'
ǫ~ǫha	'with'	cakik ǫha ktedi 'he hit him with his hand'

Notes:

1. may have a base form yaski
2. less occurrences than kuya~okaya
3. eu here, an unexpected diphthong, is shortened ewa 'there'

Almost all of the above allow following de or yą. de has the expected meaning 'here' or 'this', while yą may be glossed 'the' or 'yonder'.

Prepositions are sometimes used without modifying a noun, becoming adverbial:

sąhį yą kiya nkǫ 'I do it again on the other side'

itka yą ustki 'to stand a tall object on something'

kuya kedi 'to dig under, undermine'

Multiplicatives

Such as:

de nǫpa 'twice'

de dani 'three times'

de topa 'four times'

Some interrogatives

Biloxi interrogatives

Interrogative	Gloss	Example(s)
cidike~cidiki	'how? why?'	how: cidike ha ni 'how would it be?' cidike de nkadi nani wo 'how can I climb this?' why: cidike etikayǫ 'why do you do thus?' cidike kadeni 'why does it not burn?'
cak~caką1	'where'	ąya xehe nąki ko cak nąki hą 'where is the sitting man?' caką ne kuǫni ko 'where he stood before starting back hither'
cina	'some, many'	axok kiduni cina yįki da 'he gathered a few small canes' cina psohe cucuk max 'there were a few things piles here and there in the corners'\ koniška yą kutu dixyį cina ǫni ko henani xya nedi 'when they gave him the bottle, it had as much in it as before'
cinani23	'how many?'	tohoxka ko cinani yukedi 'how many horses are there?' kšixka ko cinani yukedi 'how many hogs are there?'

1. derived from cina
2. cak and caką appear to be in free variation
3. occurs indicatively a few times, e.g. anahįk cinani kiduwe 'he untied some hair for her'

Subjects and Objects

Subjects and objects are formed almost identically, save for the fact that the nominal particle ką may only be used after objects.

A subject or object must include a simple noun (N), and may optionally also include a verb (V), nominal particle (np), and/or demonstrative pronoun (dp), in that order.

If the noun is a personal pronoun, it may only (optionally) be followed by either a demonstrative pronoun or a nominal particle, but not both. For other pronouns (e.g. de 'this), they may not be followed by anythihng.

Examples:

N V

ąya xohi 'the old woman'

N np

ąya di 'the person

N dp

ąya de 'these people

N V np

ąya xohi yą 'the old woman'

N V dp

ąya nǫpa amąkide 'these two men'

N np dp

ǫti yą he 'the bear, too'

N V np dp

ąya sahi yą he 'the Indian, too'

Possession in S's and O's is expressed by the possessor followed by the possessed, followed by np's.

ąya anahį ką 'people's hair' (obj.)

ąya tik 'the man's house'

Two subjects may be juxtaposed with reciprocal verbs:

cetkana ǫti kitenaxtu xa 'the rabbit and the bear were friends to one another

Additives may be expressed by juxtaposition followed by the np yą, but this is not used often due to ambiguity (it might be interpreted as a possessive phrase):

tohoxk wak yą ndǫhǫ 'I saw a horse and a cow'

ąyato ąxti yą hamaki 'a man and a woman were coming'

Alternatives are expressed with juxtaposition followed by the particle ha (not otherwise an np):

sįto sąki ha hanǫ 'is that a boy or a girl?'

tohoxk waka ha hanǫ 'is that a horse or a cow?'

Nominal particles (np)

Biloxi has many nominal particles, and for the most part their function is unclear.

A non-exhaustive list:

yą

di

yandi

ką

-k

yąką

ko

Ø

For the most part it's unclear what conditions the use of a particular np (or ∅), but the following can be said:

1. ką, -k, yąk, yąką are only used with objects
2. yandi almost always is used with human nouns (with exception)
3. ko is used when the noun is a pronoun, when the main verb is stative, or when there is an interrogative present

Verbs

Simple verbs (not causatives or expanded verbs, see below) must contain a person marker, root, and number marker, and optionally the following:

Prefixes:

thematic prefixes

reciprocals, dative markers, reflexives

instrumental markers

Suffixes:

mode markers

object markers

Auxiliary constructions

Biloxi contains a defective auxiliary verb (h)andE/yukE (ande is used in singular, yuke for plural). By itself it may mean 'to be' or 'to stay', but with another verb it lends durativity. The plural marker -tu is not used with yuke since the defective form itself already serves to mark number.

When the auxiliary construction is used, both the main verb and the auxiliary are inflected.

Examples:

de ande 'he was departing'

iduti yayuke 'you (pl.) are eating'

Generally to express the negative the stem is negated, rather than the auxiliary:

kox ni yuke di 'they were unwilling'

kukuhi ni yuke 'they could not raise (it)'

Classificatory verbs

Biloxi contains five classificatory verbs, which indicate duration and position of the subject: (See above for morphophonemic explanation of ||mąki|| > /max/.)
nąki 'sitting'

kak ayǫk yąhi inąki wo 'what have you suffered that causes you to sit and cry?'

pa kidǫhi nąki' 'she sat looking at her head'

mąki 'reclining', 'in a horizontal position'

įdahi ye daha max 'he continually sent for them'

naxe ąki 'he listened (reclining)'

plural form

mąxtu~amąki : dǫhi amąx ką 'while they were looking at him' : akikahį mąktu 'they were telling news to one another

ne 'upright'

ta duxke ne ką 'he stood slaying the deer'

kawak iye inedi wo 'what were you saying as you stood?'

plural form

ne : ade ne di 'they were moving

hine 'walking'

ąya ni hine ayehǫ ni 'do you know the walking man?'

tohoxkk ni hine ko toxka xe 'the walking horse is gray' (fem.)

ande 'running'

mani ande yą 'the (running) wild turkey'

ąya tąhį yande ayehǫ ni 'do you know the running man?'

They may be used alone as verbs (kuhik mąx ką 'when it was lying high') but often reinforce synonymous roots:

xe nąki 'she is sitting (sitting)'

tox mąki 'he was lying (lying)'

sįhįx ne 'it was standing (standing)'

ąya ni hine ayehǫ ni 'do you know the walking (walking) man?'

ąya tąhį yande ayehǫ ni 'do you know the running (running) man?'

They are used mostly with animates.

Classificatory verbs are only inflected for 2nd person (not 1st) when used as auxiliaries.

hamaki~amaki is used as the plural form for all five classificatory verbs (even optionally for mąki and ne, which have their own plural forms mąxtu~amąki and ne):

ąksiyǫ yamaki wo 'are you all making arrows?'

ca hanke te nkamaki na 'we wish to kill them' (masc.)

ąya nǫpa ci hamaki nkehǫ ni 'I know the two reclining men'

ąya nǫpa ni hamaki nkehǫ ni 'I know the two walking men'

ąya xaxaxa hamaki ayehǫ ni 'do you know all the standing men?'

Causatives

The causative verb ||YE|| comes after (uninflected) stems to form a causative construction. In first and second person ha (sometimes h if followed by a vowel, see 3.1 above) is inserted between the stem and ||YE||.

Examples:

• axehe hanke nąki na 'I have stuck it in (as I sit)' (masc.)
• ca hiyetu 'you kill them all'
• te ye 'he killed her'

Expanded verbs

Serial verb construction

Serial verb construction

The serial verb construction, also known as serialization, is a syntactic phenomenon common to many African, Asian and New Guinean languages...

s occur with two or three verbs in sequence. All are of the same person and number, but only the final stem has suffixes:

nkǫ įkte xo 'I do it, I will hit you if...'

hane dusi duxke 'he found her, took her, and skinned her'

Coordinating

Coordinating connectives

	Connective	Meaning	Example(s)
Clause-final	hą	'and'	e hą kidedi 'he said, and went home' ǫti yandi įske hą yahe yą de 'the bear was scared and went away
	hąca	'but, and subsequently'	ǫti yandi hedi hąca te ye te cetkana ką 'the bear said that, but he wished to kill the rabbit' apad ǫ hąca kiya dedi 'she wrapped it up, and subsequently went on'
Sentence-initial	ekeką	'and then'	ekeką wax ade ąyato yą 'and so the men went hunting'
	ekehą	'and then'	ekehą kuhi yą adi 'and then, he climbed up there'
	ekeko	'well'	ekeko ąksǫtu te 'well, make arrows!' (fem. to males)
	eką	'well'	eką towe yą aki yą toho 'and then the Frenchman lay next'
	eke	'well'	eke he eyąhį hą 'well, she arrived there, and'
	ekedį	'that is why'
	ekeǫnidi	'therefore'	ekeǫnidi ąya anitkak yuke xa 'therefore, there are people under the water'

Subordinating

All subordinating connectives are clause-final. ką is the most common by far, and may be related to the np ką.

Subordinating connectives

Connective	Meaning	Example(s)
de hed hą	[marks previous verb as past perfect, lit. 'this finished and']	dukucke de hed hą tumockanadi xaninati kde 'when he had tied it, the Ancient of Wildcats rolled it along for some time' duti de hed hą, max ką kidi 'after they had eaten, when they two sat, he came back' itamino ye de hed hą anahį yą kidakacke de hed hą 'when she had dressed her (and) tied her hair for her'
dixyį	'when, if'	kiyetu dixyį 'whenever they said (that) to him'
dixyą	'whenever, when, if'	ekedį pusi dixyą 'therefore, when it is nighttime...'
ką	'when'	axikiye hande ką 'when he was treating him' ani akuditu ką, tunaci yąk kidǫhi 'when they peeped down into the water, they saw his shadow'
kne	'just as, as soon as'
ko	'when, as, since'
kike	'although'	ayohik sahi xti watatu kike kudǫxtǫ ni xti 'although they watched the pond for a long time, they saw nothing at all'
xyeni	'although'	yaxkica daha xyeni nkįxtu ko įkcatu ni 'although you have forgotten us, we have not forgotten you'

Clauses

Clauses may end it at most one clause final connective. Subordinating connectives are used to create dependant clauses.

In clauses, the following order generally holds:

(Connective) (Subject) (Object) (Adverb) Verb (Connective)

There are occasional examples of S and/or O occurring after the verb, always with animates. O rarely precedes S, possibly for emphasis.

Direct objects always precedes indirect objects, e.g. ąya xi yandi ąxti yą int ką ku 'the chief gave him the woman

Full sentences always end in independent clauses. Embedded sentences are not usually marked, though the horatory marker hi can be used if the embedded action hasn't yet occurred, and ni can be used if the action wasn't performed. wo (or wi) is used for mistaken ideas.

External links

• Native Languages: Biloxi

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