Aversives
Encyclopedia
In psychology
, aversives are unpleasant
stimuli
that induce changes in behavior
through punishment
; by applying an aversive immediately following a behavior, the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future is reduced. Aversives can vary from being slightly unpleasant or irritating (such as a disliked color) to physically damaging (such as an electric shock
). It is not the level of unpleasantness, but rather the effectiveness the unpleasant event has on changing behavior that defines the aversive.
or cold
, bitter flavors, electric shock
s, loud noise
s and pain
. Aversives can be applied naturally (such as touching a hot stove) or in a contrived manner (such as during torture
or behavior modification
).
that becomes aversive after repeated pairing with an unconditioned aversive stimulus. This type of stimulus would include consequences such as verbal warnings, gestures or even the sight of an individual who is disliked.
during applied behavior analysis
with autistic children to reduce unwanted behavior, such as self-injury, that poses a risk of harm greater than that posed by application of the aversive. Aversive stimuli may also be used as negative reinforcement to increase the rate or probability of a behavior by its removal. The use of aversives was developed as a less restrictive alternative to practices prevalent in mental institutions at the time such as shock treatment, hydrotherapy, straitjacketing and frontal lobotomies. Early iterations of the Lovaas technique
incorporated aversives during therapy, though the use of aversives in ABA was not without controversy. Over time the use of aversives has become less and less necessary as less and less restrictive alternative treatments have been developed. Lovaas has since stated his disdain for the use of aversives. Applied behavior analysis permits the use of aversives in limited cases, such as when a behavior is dangerous, especially when the reinforcing contingencies that maintain a behavior are unknown.
The Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) Guidelines for Responsible Conduct state that voluntariness by the client or their surrogate is a necessary component of any behavior plan, and clients or families have the right to terminate a particular intervention if they see fit, including aversive treatments. The Behavior Analyst Certification Board issues credentials for behavior analysts nationwide, although state regulations vary as to whether or not a person can represent themselves as a behavior analyst. The use of aversive treatment is something that practitioners of applied behavior analysis take very seriously (see Professional practice of behavior analysis
) due to the risks involved and the controversy surrounding their use (even among behavior analysts). Several National and International Disability Rights Groups have spoken against the use of aversive therapies, including TASH and AUTCOM.
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
, aversives are unpleasant
Suffering
Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, is an individual's basic affective experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with harm or threat of harm. Suffering may be qualified as physical or mental. It may come in all degrees of intensity, from mild to intolerable. Factors of duration and...
stimuli
Stimulus (physiology)
In physiology, a stimulus is a detectable change in the internal or external environment. The ability of an organism or organ to respond to external stimuli is called sensitivity....
that induce changes in behavior
Behavior
Behavior or behaviour refers to the actions and mannerisms made by organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment...
through punishment
Punishment (psychology)
In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings that occurs after a given behavior or response which reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the animal, that is punished...
; by applying an aversive immediately following a behavior, the likelihood of the behavior occurring in the future is reduced. Aversives can vary from being slightly unpleasant or irritating (such as a disliked color) to physically damaging (such as an electric shock
Electric shock
Electric Shock of a body with any source of electricity that causes a sufficient current through the skin, muscles or hair. Typically, the expression is used to denote an unwanted exposure to electricity, hence the effects are considered undesirable....
). It is not the level of unpleasantness, but rather the effectiveness the unpleasant event has on changing behavior that defines the aversive.
Types of aversive stimuli
There are two types of aversive stimuli:Unconditioned aversive stimuli
Unconditioned aversive stimuli naturally result in pain or discomfort and are often associated with biologically harmful or damaging substances or events. Examples include extreme heatHeat
In physics and thermodynamics, heat is energy transferred from one body, region, or thermodynamic system to another due to thermal contact or thermal radiation when the systems are at different temperatures. It is often described as one of the fundamental processes of energy transfer between...
or cold
Cold
Cold describes the condition of low temperature.Cold may also refer to:*Common cold, a contagious viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory system*Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease...
, bitter flavors, electric shock
Electric shock
Electric Shock of a body with any source of electricity that causes a sufficient current through the skin, muscles or hair. Typically, the expression is used to denote an unwanted exposure to electricity, hence the effects are considered undesirable....
s, loud noise
Noise
In common use, the word noise means any unwanted sound. In both analog and digital electronics, noise is random unwanted perturbation to a wanted signal; it is called noise as a generalisation of the acoustic noise heard when listening to a weak radio transmission with significant electrical noise...
s and pain
Pain
Pain is an unpleasant sensation often caused by intense or damaging stimuli such as stubbing a toe, burning a finger, putting iodine on a cut, and bumping the "funny bone."...
. Aversives can be applied naturally (such as touching a hot stove) or in a contrived manner (such as during torture
Torture
Torture is the act of inflicting severe pain as a means of punishment, revenge, forcing information or a confession, or simply as an act of cruelty. Throughout history, torture has often been used as a method of political re-education, interrogation, punishment, and coercion...
or behavior modification
Behavior modification
Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to increase or decrease the frequency of behaviors, such as altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive behavior and/or the reduction of...
).
Conditioned aversive stimuli
A conditioned aversive stimulus is an initially neutral stimulusNeutral stimulus
A neutral stimulus is a stimulus which initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention. In classical conditioning, when used together with an unconditioned stimulus, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus....
that becomes aversive after repeated pairing with an unconditioned aversive stimulus. This type of stimulus would include consequences such as verbal warnings, gestures or even the sight of an individual who is disliked.
Use in applied behavior analysis (ABA)
Aversives can be used as punishmentPunishment (psychology)
In operant conditioning, punishment is any change in a human or animal's surroundings that occurs after a given behavior or response which reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring again in the future. As with reinforcement, it is the behavior, not the animal, that is punished...
during applied behavior analysis
Applied Behavior Analysis
Applied behavior analysis is a science that involves using modern behavioral learning theory to modify behaviors. Behavior analysts reject the use of hypothetical constructs and focus on the observable relationship of behavior to the environment...
with autistic children to reduce unwanted behavior, such as self-injury, that poses a risk of harm greater than that posed by application of the aversive. Aversive stimuli may also be used as negative reinforcement to increase the rate or probability of a behavior by its removal. The use of aversives was developed as a less restrictive alternative to practices prevalent in mental institutions at the time such as shock treatment, hydrotherapy, straitjacketing and frontal lobotomies. Early iterations of the Lovaas technique
Lovaas technique
LOVAAS technique, which is known to the general public as Applied behavior analysis , as well as Intensive behavioral intervention , and Early intensive behavioral intervention , is a form of treatment guided by ABA and developed by Dr. Ivar Lovaas, a psychology professor at UCLA...
incorporated aversives during therapy, though the use of aversives in ABA was not without controversy. Over time the use of aversives has become less and less necessary as less and less restrictive alternative treatments have been developed. Lovaas has since stated his disdain for the use of aversives. Applied behavior analysis permits the use of aversives in limited cases, such as when a behavior is dangerous, especially when the reinforcing contingencies that maintain a behavior are unknown.
The Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) Guidelines for Responsible Conduct state that voluntariness by the client or their surrogate is a necessary component of any behavior plan, and clients or families have the right to terminate a particular intervention if they see fit, including aversive treatments. The Behavior Analyst Certification Board issues credentials for behavior analysts nationwide, although state regulations vary as to whether or not a person can represent themselves as a behavior analyst. The use of aversive treatment is something that practitioners of applied behavior analysis take very seriously (see Professional practice of behavior analysis
Professional practice of behavior analysis
The professional practice of behavior analysis is one domain of behavior analysis: others being behaviorism, experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis...
) due to the risks involved and the controversy surrounding their use (even among behavior analysts). Several National and International Disability Rights Groups have spoken against the use of aversive therapies, including TASH and AUTCOM.