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Asian martial arts (origins)
Encyclopedia
Theories of the origins of Asian martial arts range from the highly diffusionist to models which show greater recognition of independent invention.
Around the 3rd century BC, the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was later used in martial arts, while various mudra
finger movements were taught in Yogacara
Buddhism. These elements of yoga
, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.
Indian martial arts
were an important influence in the development of a number of modern Asian martial arts, particularly within the Indian cultural sphere (countries outside India
influenced by Indian culture
and religion) of Southeast Asia
. Examples include Indo-Malay silat
, Burmese banshay
, naban
and bando
, Filipino escrima and kali
, Thai krabi krabong
and Cambodian bokator
.
Indian martial arts also lightly influenced the various forms of Indochinese kickboxing, namely muay Thai
from Thailand
, tomoi
from Malaysia, muay Lao
from Laos
, pradal serey
from Cambodia
and lethwei
from Myanmar
.
spread to China via the transmission of Buddhism
in the early 5th or 6th centuries of the common era, and thus influenced Shaolinquan. However there is record of Chinese martial arts as early as the Qin Dynasty lasting from 221 to 207 BCE.
Elements from Indian philosophy
, like the Nāga
, Rakshasa
, and the fierce Yaksha
were modified and converted into the protectors of Dharma
; these mythical figures from the Dharmic religions figure prominently in Shaolin boxing, Chang boxing and staff
fighting. The religious figures from Dharmic religions also figure in the movement and fighting techniques of Chinese martial arts. Various styles of kung fu are known to contain movements that are identical to the Mudra hand positions used in Hinduism
and Buddhism
, both of which derived from India. The 108 pressure points in Chinese martial arts are believed by some to be based on the marmam points of Indian kalaripayat.
Proponents who support the theory commonly cite a popular legend about a prince-turned-Buddhist monk named Bodhidharma
(circa 5th century) who is said to have imparted his martial arts knowledge to the monks of the Shaolin Monastery, thereby founding Shaolinquan. According to Wong Kiew Kit
, the Monk's creation of Shaolin arts "...marked a watershed in the history of kungfu, because it led to a change of course, as kungfu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense." Chinese records do not agree with the presented time line, however. Various documents from the 6th and 7th centuries place him in locations around Shaolin, but never at the monastery itself. It is not until the publishing of the Precious Record of the Darma's Transmission (Chuanfa baoji) (c. 710) that Bodhidharma is said to have actually spent time in Shaolin.
The association of Bodhidharma with martial arts is traceable to the Yi Jin Jing
, though its authenticity has been discredited by several historians such as Tang Hao, Xu Zhen and Matsuda Ryuchi. This argument is summarized by modern historian Lin Boyuan in his Zhongguo wushu shi as follows:
The oldest known available copy was published in 1827 and the composition of the text itself has been dated to 1624. According to Matsuda, none of the contemporary texts written about the Shaolin martial arts before the 19th century, such as Cheng Zongyou's Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method or Zhang Kongzhao's Boxing Classic: Essential Boxing Methods, mention Bodhidharma or credit him with the creation of the Shaolin martial arts. The association of Bodhidharma with martial arts only becomes widespread as a result of the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated Fiction Magazine.
Shaolin monastery records state that two of its very first monks, Huiguang and Sengchou, were expert in the martial arts years before the arrival of Bodhidharma. None of the canonical Buddhist sources associates Bodhidharma with martial arts whereas they do note Sengchou's skill with the tin staff.
The discovery of arms caches in the monasteries of Chang'an
during government raids in 446 AD suggests that Chinese monks practiced martial arts prior to the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery in 497.
Monks came from the ranks of the population among whom the martial arts were widely practiced prior to the introduction of Buddhism.
Moreover, Chinese monasteries, not unlike those of Europe, in many ways were effectively large landed estates, that is, sources of considerable wealth which required protection that had to be supplied by the monasteries' own manpower.
In addition, the Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue, the Bibliographies in the Book of the Han Dynasty and the Records of the Grand Historian all document the existence of martial arts in China before Bodhidharma.
The martial arts Shuāi Jiāo
and Sun Bin
Quan, to name two, predate the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery by centuries.
The Samurai
class in Japan
made Zen
their way of life following their encounter with the martial-arts-oriented Zen Rinzai School
introduced to Japan by Eisai
in the 12th century.
Doshin So
, the founder of Shorinji Kempo
, was convinced that a Shaolin temple fresco
depicted Chinese
and India
n monks practicing martial arts together for spiritual edification.
, is the oldest form of unarmed fighting in Korea. Besides being used to train soldiers, it was also popular among villagers during festivals. The ancient Koreans didn't develope a comprehensive system of unarmed weapon-based combat partly owing to their preference for bows and arrows, and also because of the late arrival of steel in Korea. It appears that during the Goguryeo
dynasty, (37 BC – 668) subak (empty-handed fighting), swordsmanship, spear-fighting and horse riding were practiced.
In 1593, Korea received help from China
to win back Pyongyang
from the Japanese. During one of the battles, the Koreans learned about a martial art manual titled Ji Xiao Xin Shu
(紀效新書), written by the Chinese military strategist Qi Jiguang
. King Seonjo
(1567–1608) took a personal interest in the book, and ordered his court to study the book. This led to the creation of the Muyejebo
(무예제보, Hanja: 武藝諸譜) in 1599 by Han Gyo, who had studied the use of several weapons with the Chinese army. Soon this book was revised in the Muyejebo Seokjib and in 1759, the book was revised and published at the Muyesinbo
(Hangul: 무예신보, Hanja: 武藝新譜).
In 1790, these two books formed the basis, together with other Korean, Chinese, and Japanese martial art manuals, of the richly illustrated Muyedobotongji
(Hangul: 무예도보통지, Hanja: 武藝圖譜通志). The book does not refer to taekyeon, but shows influences from Chinese and Japanese fighting systems. It deals mostly with armed combat like sword fighting, double-sword fighting, spear fighting, stick fighting, and so on.
Vietnamese martial arts are influenced by efforts to defend the country from foreign threats and also by the people whom Vietnam conquered (Champa
). The most influential in the country's martial arts is China with its thousand-year occupation of Vietnam. But through thousands of years of internal, civil strife: dynastic changes (dynasties), foreign conquests, warlordism and guerrilla tactics, the Vietnamese martial artists used what they learned from their neighbors and evolved a unique form of martial arts.
The martial arts were used by Vietnamese kings to train their troops and to defend the country against . In addition to the army, family clans and Buddhist temples cultivated a variety of styles to defend themselves in national disputes.
, pre-date Alexander the Great. Building on the work of Laughlin
(1956, 1961), argues that the martial arts of the Chinese, Japanese and Aleut peoples, Mongolian wrestling
all have "roots in the prehistoric era and to a common Mongoloid ancestral people who inhabited north-eastern Asia." thereby also pre-dating alleged European influence.
India
Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali are 194 Indian sūtras that constitute the foundational text of Rāja Yoga. Yoga is one of the six orthodox āstika schools of Hindu philosophy, and Rāja Yoga is the highest practice....
taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was later used in martial arts, while various mudra
Mudra
A mudrā is a symbolic or ritual gesture in Hinduism and Buddhism. While some mudrās involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers...
finger movements were taught in Yogacara
Yogacara
Yogācāra is an influential school of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing phenomenology and ontology through the interior lens of meditative and yogic practices. It developed within Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism in about the 4th century CE...
Buddhism. These elements of yoga
Yoga
Yoga is a physical, mental, and spiritual discipline, originating in ancient India. The goal of yoga, or of the person practicing yoga, is the attainment of a state of perfect spiritual insight and tranquility while meditating on Supersoul...
, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.
Indian martial arts
Indian martial arts
The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of fighting styles. In Sanskrit they may be collectively referred to as ' or '. The former is a compound of the words and , meaning "knowledge of the sword" or "knowledge of weaponry"...
were an important influence in the development of a number of modern Asian martial arts, particularly within the Indian cultural sphere (countries outside India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
influenced by Indian culture
Culture of India
India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food and customs differ from place to place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality....
and religion) of Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, South-East Asia, South East Asia or Southeastern Asia is a subregion of Asia, consisting of the countries that are geographically south of China, east of India, west of New Guinea and north of Australia. The region lies on the intersection of geological plates, with heavy seismic...
. Examples include Indo-Malay silat
Silat
Silat Melayu is a blanket term for the types of silat created in peninsular Southeast Asia, particularly Malaysia, Thailand, Brunei and Singapore. The silat tradition has deep roots in Malay culture and can trace its origin to the dawn of Malay civilization, 2000 years ago...
, Burmese banshay
Banshay
Banshay is a weapon-based Burmese martial art focusing primarily on the sword, staff and spear. Influenced by both Chinese and Indian sources, it is also closely related to krabi krabong and thang-ta....
, naban
Naban
Naban is a style of wrestling from Myanmar. Related to Tibetan and Cambodian grappling arts, naban was originally based on Indian wrestling. It became popular in rural areas where it was often performed at festivals alongside lethwei matches. Naban is most commonly practiced by the tribal peoples...
and bando
Bando
Bando is a defensive style of thaing focusing on animal-based techniques. The earliest meanings of the word were self-discipline, self-development and self-improvement. Later, it came to mean self-protection or self-defense...
, Filipino escrima and kali
Filipino martial arts
Filipino Martial Arts refers to ancient and newer fighting methods devised in the Philippines, the most popular of which are known as Arnis/Eskrima/Kali. The intrinsic need for self-preservation was the genesis of these systems. Throughout the ages, invaders and evolving local conflict imposed new...
, Thai krabi krabong
Krabi Krabong
Krabi krabong is a weapon-based martial art from Thailand. It is closely related to other Southeast Asian fighting styles such as Indonesian-Malay silat, Burmese banshay and the armed component of Cambodian bokator...
and Cambodian bokator
Bokator
Bokator, or more formally, Labokkatao is a Cambodian martial art that includes close hand-to-hand combat, ground techniques and weapons. Possibly the oldest existing fighting system in Cambodia, oral tradition indicates that bokator or an early form thereof was the close quarter combat system used...
.
Indian martial arts also lightly influenced the various forms of Indochinese kickboxing, namely muay Thai
Muay Thai
Muay Thai is a combat sport from Thailand that uses stand-up striking along with various clinching techniques. It is similar to other Indochinese kickboxing systems, namely pradal serey from Cambodia, tomoi from Malaysia, lethwei from Myanmar and muay Lao from Laos...
from Thailand
Thailand
Thailand , officially the Kingdom of Thailand , formerly known as Siam , is a country located at the centre of the Indochina peninsula and Southeast Asia. It is bordered to the north by Burma and Laos, to the east by Laos and Cambodia, to the south by the Gulf of Thailand and Malaysia, and to the...
, tomoi
Tomoi
Tomoi is an unarmed martial art from Malaysia. It is closely related to other Indochinese boxing styles, such as as muay Thai in Thailand, pradal serey in Cambodia, muay Lao in Laos and lethwei in Myanmar....
from Malaysia, muay Lao
Lao boxing
Muay Lao is a traditional unarmed martial art from Laos. It is similar to Muay Thai in Thailand, Pradal Serey in Cambodia, tomoi in Malaysia and as a similar art called lethwei in Myanmar. It incorporates punches, kicks, elbows and knee strikes. Muay Lao was an event at the 2009 Southeast Asian...
from Laos
Laos
Laos Lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao, officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma and China to the northwest, Vietnam to the east, Cambodia to the south and Thailand to the west...
, pradal serey
Pradal Serey
Pradal serey is an unarmed martial art from Cambodia. In Khmer the word pradal means fighting or boxing and serey means free. Originally used for warfare, pradal serey is now one of Cambodia's national sports...
from Cambodia
Cambodia
Cambodia , officially known as the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochina Peninsula in Southeast Asia...
and lethwei
Lethwei
Lethwei is an unarmed Burmese martial art. It is similar to related styles of Indochinese kickboxing, namely Muay Thai from Thailand, pradal serey from Cambodia, Muay Lao from Laos and tomoi from Malaysia.- History :...
from Myanmar
Myanmar
Burma , officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar , is a country in Southeast Asia. Burma is bordered by China on the northeast, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, India on the northwest, the Bay of Bengal to the southwest, and the Andaman Sea on the south....
.
China
There is a theory which claims Indian martial artsIndian martial arts
The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of fighting styles. In Sanskrit they may be collectively referred to as ' or '. The former is a compound of the words and , meaning "knowledge of the sword" or "knowledge of weaponry"...
spread to China via the transmission of Buddhism
Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism to China is most commonly thought to have started in the late 2nd or the 1st century CE.The first documented translation efforts by Buddhist monks in China were in the 2nd century CE, possibly as a consequence of the expansion of the Kushan Empire into the...
in the early 5th or 6th centuries of the common era, and thus influenced Shaolinquan. However there is record of Chinese martial arts as early as the Qin Dynasty lasting from 221 to 207 BCE.
Elements from Indian philosophy
Indian philosophy
India has a rich and diverse philosophical tradition dating back to ancient times. According to Radhakrishnan, the earlier Upanisads constitute "...the earliest philosophical compositions of the world."...
, like the Nāga
Naga
Naga or NAGA may refer to:* Nāga, a group of serpent deities in Hindu and Buddhist mythology.-People:* Nayan / Nayar/Nair people of Kerala Society* Naga people, a diverse ethnic identity in Northeast India...
, Rakshasa
Rakshasa
A Rakshasa or alternatively rakshas, is a race of mythological humanoid beings or unrighteous spirit in Hindu and Buddhist religion...
, and the fierce Yaksha
Yaksha
Yaksha is the name of a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, who are caretakers of the natural treasures hidden in the earth and tree roots. They appear in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist mythology. The feminine form of the word is ' or Yakshini .In Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist mythology,...
were modified and converted into the protectors of Dharma
Dharma
Dharma means Law or Natural Law and is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion. In the context of Hinduism, it refers to one's personal obligations, calling and duties, and a Hindu's dharma is affected by the person's age, caste, class, occupation, and gender...
; these mythical figures from the Dharmic religions figure prominently in Shaolin boxing, Chang boxing and staff
Gun (staff)
The Chinese word gun refers to a long Chinese staff weapon used in Chinese martial arts. It is known as one of the four major weapons, along with the qiang , dao , and the jian , called in this group "The Grandfather of all Weapons".-Variants:There are various kinds of gun, and they include the...
fighting. The religious figures from Dharmic religions also figure in the movement and fighting techniques of Chinese martial arts. Various styles of kung fu are known to contain movements that are identical to the Mudra hand positions used in Hinduism
Hinduism
Hinduism is the predominant and indigenous religious tradition of the Indian Subcontinent. Hinduism is known to its followers as , amongst many other expressions...
and Buddhism
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy encompassing a variety of traditions, beliefs and practices, largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha . The Buddha lived and taught in the northeastern Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th...
, both of which derived from India. The 108 pressure points in Chinese martial arts are believed by some to be based on the marmam points of Indian kalaripayat.
Proponents who support the theory commonly cite a popular legend about a prince-turned-Buddhist monk named Bodhidharma
Bodhidharma
Bodhidharma was a Buddhist monk who lived during the 5th/6th century AD. He is traditionally credited as the transmitter of Ch'an to China, and regarded as the first Chinese patriarch...
(circa 5th century) who is said to have imparted his martial arts knowledge to the monks of the Shaolin Monastery, thereby founding Shaolinquan. According to Wong Kiew Kit
Wong Kiew Kit
Wong Kiew Kit is a fourth generation successor from the Southern Shaolin Monastery in China and is a grandmaster of Shaolin Kung Fu and Qigong...
, the Monk's creation of Shaolin arts "...marked a watershed in the history of kungfu, because it led to a change of course, as kungfu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense." Chinese records do not agree with the presented time line, however. Various documents from the 6th and 7th centuries place him in locations around Shaolin, but never at the monastery itself. It is not until the publishing of the Precious Record of the Darma's Transmission (Chuanfa baoji) (c. 710) that Bodhidharma is said to have actually spent time in Shaolin.
The association of Bodhidharma with martial arts is traceable to the Yi Jin Jing
Yì Jin Jing
The Yijin Jing is a Qigong manual containing a series of exercises, coordinated with specific breathing and mental concentration, said to enhance physical health dramatically when practiced consistently. In the modern day there are many translations and distinct sets of exercises all said to be...
, though its authenticity has been discredited by several historians such as Tang Hao, Xu Zhen and Matsuda Ryuchi. This argument is summarized by modern historian Lin Boyuan in his Zhongguo wushu shi as follows:
As for the "Yi Jin Jing" (Muscle Changing Classic), a spurious text attributed to Bodhidharma and included in the legend of his transmitting martial arts at the temple, it was written in the Ming dynasty, in 1624 CE, by the Daoist priest Zining of Mt. Tiantai, and falsely attributed to Bodhidharma. Forged prefaces, attributed to the Tang general Li Jing and the Southern Song general Niu Gao were written. They say that, after Bodhidharma faced the wall for nine years at Shaolin temple, he left behind an iron chest; when the monks opened this chest they found the two books Xi Sui Jing (Marrow Washing Classic) and Yi Jin JingYì Jin JingThe Yijin Jing is a Qigong manual containing a series of exercises, coordinated with specific breathing and mental concentration, said to enhance physical health dramatically when practiced consistently. In the modern day there are many translations and distinct sets of exercises all said to be...
within. The first book was taken by his disciple Huike, and disappeared; as for the second, "the monks selfishly coveted it, practicing the skills therein, falling into heterodox ways, and losing the correct purpose of cultivating the Real. The Shaolin monks have made some fame for themselves through their fighting skill; this is all due to having obtained this manuscript." Based on this, Bodhidharma was claimed to be the ancestor of Shaolin martial arts. This manuscript is full of errors, absurdities and fantastic claims; it cannot be taken as a legitimate source.
The oldest known available copy was published in 1827 and the composition of the text itself has been dated to 1624. According to Matsuda, none of the contemporary texts written about the Shaolin martial arts before the 19th century, such as Cheng Zongyou's Exposition of the Original Shaolin Staff Method or Zhang Kongzhao's Boxing Classic: Essential Boxing Methods, mention Bodhidharma or credit him with the creation of the Shaolin martial arts. The association of Bodhidharma with martial arts only becomes widespread as a result of the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated Fiction Magazine.
The discovery of arms caches in the monasteries of Chang'an
Chang'an
Chang'an is an ancient capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history, today known as Xi'an. Chang'an literally means "Perpetual Peace" in Classical Chinese. During the short-lived Xin Dynasty, the city was renamed "Constant Peace" ; yet after its fall in AD 23, the old name was restored...
during government raids in 446 AD suggests that Chinese monks practiced martial arts prior to the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery in 497.
Monks came from the ranks of the population among whom the martial arts were widely practiced prior to the introduction of Buddhism.
Moreover, Chinese monasteries, not unlike those of Europe, in many ways were effectively large landed estates, that is, sources of considerable wealth which required protection that had to be supplied by the monasteries' own manpower.
In addition, the Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue, the Bibliographies in the Book of the Han Dynasty and the Records of the Grand Historian all document the existence of martial arts in China before Bodhidharma.
The martial arts Shuāi Jiāo
Shuai jiao
Shuai jiao is the general Mandarin Chinese term for wrestling. As a generic name, it may be used to cover various styles of wrestling practised in China in the form of a martial arts system or a sport. The narrower term pertains to wrestling styles of the North China Plain...
and Sun Bin
Sun Bin
Sun Bin was a military strategist who lived during the Warring States Period of Chinese history. An alleged descendant of Sun Tzu, Sun Bin was tutored in military strategy by the hermit Guiguzi...
Quan, to name two, predate the establishment of the Shaolin Monastery by centuries.
Japan
Samurai
is the term for the military nobility of pre-industrial Japan. According to translator William Scott Wilson: "In Chinese, the character 侍 was originally a verb meaning to wait upon or accompany a person in the upper ranks of society, and this is also true of the original term in Japanese, saburau...
class in Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
made Zen
Zen
Zen is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism founded by the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma. The word Zen is from the Japanese pronunciation of the Chinese word Chán , which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna, which can be approximately translated as "meditation" or "meditative state."Zen...
their way of life following their encounter with the martial-arts-oriented Zen Rinzai School
Rinzai school
The Rinzai school is , one of three sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism.Rinzai is the Japanese line of the Chinese Linji school, which was founded during the Tang Dynasty by Linji Yixuan...
introduced to Japan by Eisai
Eisai
Myōan Eisai was a Japanese Buddhist priest, credited with bringing the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism and green tea from China to Japan. He is often known simply as Eisai Zenji , literally "Zen master Eisai"....
in the 12th century.
Doshin So
Doshin So
was the creator and founder of Shorinji Kempo and the doctrine .Born , So lived in the Manchuria region of China with his grandfather, and later from the mid 1920s to the end of the Second World War. During this time he practised martial arts under several masters while doing topography studies...
, the founder of Shorinji Kempo
Shorinji Kempo
was established by as a system for self-improvement and training in Japan in 1947 based on Shaolin kungfu ....
, was convinced that a Shaolin temple fresco
Fresco
Fresco is any of several related mural painting types, executed on plaster on walls or ceilings. The word fresco comes from the Greek word affresca which derives from the Latin word for "fresh". Frescoes first developed in the ancient world and continued to be popular through the Renaissance...
depicted Chinese
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
and India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
n monks practicing martial arts together for spiritual edification.
Korea
Wrestling, called ssireumSsireum
Historically, there have been other terms for "wrestling" in Korean used alongside ssireum, such as gakjeo , gakhui , gakryeok , gakgii , chiuhui , sangbak , jaenggyo ....
, is the oldest form of unarmed fighting in Korea. Besides being used to train soldiers, it was also popular among villagers during festivals. The ancient Koreans didn't develope a comprehensive system of unarmed weapon-based combat partly owing to their preference for bows and arrows, and also because of the late arrival of steel in Korea. It appears that during the Goguryeo
Goguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
dynasty, (37 BC – 668) subak (empty-handed fighting), swordsmanship, spear-fighting and horse riding were practiced.
In 1593, Korea received help from China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
to win back Pyongyang
Pyongyang
Pyongyang is the capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly known as North Korea, and the largest city in the country. Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River and, according to preliminary results from the 2008 population census, has a population of 3,255,388. The city was...
from the Japanese. During one of the battles, the Koreans learned about a martial art manual titled Ji Xiao Xin Shu
Ji Xiao Xin Shu
The book Ji Xiao Xin Shu was written by the Chinese general Qi Jiguang of the Ming Dynasty. The title can be translated as New Book Recording Effective Techniques....
(紀效新書), written by the Chinese military strategist Qi Jiguang
Qi Jiguang
Qi Jiguang was a Chinese military general and national hero during the Ming Dynasty. He was best remembered for his courage and leadership in the fight against Japanese pirates along the east coast of China, as well as his reinforcement work on the Great Wall of China.-Early life:Qi Jiguang was...
. King Seonjo
Seonjo of Joseon
King Seonjo ruled in Korea between 1567 and 1608. He was the fourteenth king of the Joseon Dynasty. He is known for encouraging Confucianism and renovating state affairs at the beginning of his reign, although political chaos and his incompetent leadership during the Japanese invasions of Korea...
(1567–1608) took a personal interest in the book, and ordered his court to study the book. This led to the creation of the Muyejebo
Muyejebo
The Muyejebo is a Korean martial art manual written during the reign of King Seonjo in 1598.-History:As the Imjin war dragged on for years, Korea needed a way to effectively train a large number of troops, and the Korean military adopted a training methodology based on a Chinese military manual...
(무예제보, Hanja: 武藝諸譜) in 1599 by Han Gyo, who had studied the use of several weapons with the Chinese army. Soon this book was revised in the Muyejebo Seokjib and in 1759, the book was revised and published at the Muyesinbo
Muyesinbo
The Muyesinbo is Korean martial arts manual published in 1759. The book is a revision of the older Muyejebo and adds twelve methods of both armed and unarmed fighting to the original six which were descbribed in the Muyejebo...
(Hangul: 무예신보, Hanja: 武藝新譜).
In 1790, these two books formed the basis, together with other Korean, Chinese, and Japanese martial art manuals, of the richly illustrated Muyedobotongji
Muyedobotongji
In 1790, King Jeongjo of Korea commissioned a book called the Muyedobotongji which was an illustrated manual of Korean martial arts. This book, written by Yi Deokmu and Pak Jega , described in detail Korea's martial arts of which an unarmed combat style of kicking and punching is extensively...
(Hangul: 무예도보통지, Hanja: 武藝圖譜通志). The book does not refer to taekyeon, but shows influences from Chinese and Japanese fighting systems. It deals mostly with armed combat like sword fighting, double-sword fighting, spear fighting, stick fighting, and so on.
Vietnam
Champa
The kingdom of Champa was an Indianized kingdom that controlled what is now southern and central Vietnam from approximately the 7th century through to 1832.The Cham people are remnants...
). The most influential in the country's martial arts is China with its thousand-year occupation of Vietnam. But through thousands of years of internal, civil strife: dynastic changes (dynasties), foreign conquests, warlordism and guerrilla tactics, the Vietnamese martial artists used what they learned from their neighbors and evolved a unique form of martial arts.
The martial arts were used by Vietnamese kings to train their troops and to defend the country against . In addition to the army, family clans and Buddhist temples cultivated a variety of styles to defend themselves in national disputes.
Purported foreign influence
claims that "when Alexander the Great expanded his empire to stretch as far as India, he may have sown the seeds of modern Asian martial arts.", but no evidence exists to support this claim. Macedonians were not very appreciative of combat sports and Alexander himself felt pankration to be unsuitable for war, rejecting it in favour of military strategy. As it is based entirely on assumptions, this theory is popular primarily among martial artists of Greek descent but is not taken seriously by any historians. Furthermore, accounts of combat in Indian epic poetryIndian epic poetry
Indian epic poetry is the epic poetry written in the Indian subcontinent, traditionally called Kavya . The Ramayana and Mahabharata, originally composed in Sanskrit and translated thereafter into many other Indian languages, are some of the oldest surviving epic poems on earth and form part of...
, pre-date Alexander the Great. Building on the work of Laughlin
William S. Laughlin
William S. Laughlin was an American anthropologist who carried on research and wrote about aboriginal peoples in the Aleutians and Greenland....
(1956, 1961), argues that the martial arts of the Chinese, Japanese and Aleut peoples, Mongolian wrestling
Mongolian wrestling
Mongolian wrestling, known as Bökh , is the folk wrestling style of Mongols in Mongolia, Inner Mongolia and other regions...
all have "roots in the prehistoric era and to a common Mongoloid ancestral people who inhabited north-eastern Asia." thereby also pre-dating alleged European influence.