Agricultural sustainability in northern Nigeria
Encyclopedia
Agricultural sustainability
in northern Nigeria requires flexibility in both ecological management as well as economic activity. Rainfall occurs only seasonally – and there is a pronounced dry season – however, rainfall is often intensive when it does come, making it necessary for farmers to employ soil moisture conservation techniques. The main crops grown in the region are millet
, sorghum
, and cowpea
, while groundnut
and sesame
are significant minor crops. Wild foods also serve as an important supplement to the diet, especially during times of food shortage. The bulk of crops are grown during the rainy season which begins in June or July, when temperatures are warmer. There has traditionally been a division between sedentary farmers made up of the Manga
and Hausa
people, and the nomadic pastoralists known as Fulani, however this has diminished in recent times. Historically, development plans for this region have focused on the use of imported technology and irrigation schemes, while neglecting traditional farming practices of the region. These traditional practices generally focus on the close integration between the raising of livestock and farming, and have been studied in detail in the Kano Close Settled Zone of Northern Nigeria.
(see Figure 1), and this region is characterized by a relatively hot climate with seasonal rainfall and a marked dry season. The pressures of an increasing population (see Figure 2) are understood to cause increasing food demands by urban consumers and rural farmers, the expansion of areas of cultivation, reduced fallow intervals with a lack of inputs necessary to compensate, and as a result reduced soil fertility. This means that per capita
and per hectare
yields will decline and food will become scarce, especially for those in rural areas. However, it is possible that an increase in population density may in fact have positive rather than negative consequences for the economy as well as the environment. Studies carried out in the Kano Close-Settled Zone and the surrounding region indicated that in particular places at certain times, the intensification of agricultural practices can take place without the typically associated degradation. While there does exist poverty in the region, as well as people who are without sufficient food, there does not appear to be a decline in crop yields. Instead evidence suggests there has been a sustained effort to increase the production of food in an attempt to keep up with the increasing need.
values range between 6.0 and 7.0, and their bulk densities are about 1.4 g/cm3. (See Figure 3.)
Infiltration is the process through which water moves downward into the soil. between rainfalls, but also conserves runoff in the furrows. The protection or planting of a variety of shrub and tree species aids in the conservation of biodiversity
as well as the control of wind and water erosion on the gently sloping farmlands of the region.
(Lawsonia inermis) as well as various grasses. Intercrop spreads are also planted among the grains; they often consist of cowpeas or groundnuts, which are nitrogen-fixing plants. A density of mature trees is also maintained.
Wild foods in northeastern Nigeria come from a wide range of plants, including trees; shrubs; and various herbaceous plants. They add diversity, flavor, and important vitamins and minerals necessary for healthy growth. Furthermore, they are used as livestock fodder; in agriculture, construction, and medicines; and for cultural reasons. These potential sources of food can be found in a range of habitats from farmland (as weeds), to fallow fields and grazing lands, as well as in the settlements themselves. These foods become particularly important in times of food shortage, such as during a drought or when access to food is limited due to socio-economic issues like poverty or warfare.
has been successful are weeded using a locally-made hoe known as the ashasha.
In September, millet is harvested, followed closely by beans. In late October or November sorghum is harvested. In addition to this, farmers who do not wish for their cereal stalks to be consumed by livestock must also harvest these. Some farmers begin planting guna melon as the millet is harvested. However, guna melon is very vulnerable to pests, so the crop is not successful in every year. They are harvested from February to April if it is.
In northern Nigeria, research surrounding intensive agricultural practices has been taking place for a number of decades, especially in the Kano Close-Settled Zone. In the nineteenth century, the intensive agriculture carried out in this area of dense population surrounding Kano city was noted by western visitors like Henry Barth. By the year 1913 there was a maximum of one third of farmland in fallowFallow is a stage of crop rotation in which the land is left uncultivated, allowing nutrients to become replenished. in any particular year. The population densities of the rural area in this region climbed from 243 to 348 people per square kilometer between 1962 and 1991, but the land area under permanent cultivation remained approximately the same. In this time period the cultivated land per capita went from 0.36 to 0.29 hectares. However, there was no evidence of any significant decrease in the fertility of the soil. Furthermore, the average cereal crop yields as well as number of farm trees remained constant.
This type of development plan is exemplified by the Kano River Project in Kadawa which was built primarily for the production of wheat
Wheat is a temperate crop that is not well adapted to tropical climates, but is imported in large quantities in order to produce bread for the urban populations in the region. in the dry season. This large scale irrigation scheme combined large costs for set-up,A large portion of this initial investment did not remain within the country. with significant ongoing costs for farmers since they needed to pay for the use of equipment like tractors, seeds, and pesticides. The productivity of wheat achieved through this production method was well below the projections made by the Dutch consulting firm NEDECO, which was involved with this project. The Kano River Project endeavored to radically change the farming system from one where farmers primarily grew their own food and were essentially self-sufficient, to one where they grew food for the market and must buy food to meet their own needs. Given the problems, and few realized benefits, associated with this type of agriculture the farmers of this region were quite resistant to these massive changes and the Kano River Project is only a fraction of the extent that was planned. Furthermore, large scale irrigation projects such as these have a characteristically poor performance record and are often associated with the salinizationSalinization is the build-up of salts in the soil. It is also often used to refer to alkalization which is the build-up of alkalis in the soil. of soils.
Historically, in sub-Saharan Africa intensive agriculture carried out by indigenous peoples has been the exception rather than the rule. Until recently, this area has been characterized by a large amount of land with a relatively small labor force available to work this land. Most Africans have simply moved when confronted with increasing population and declining crop yields. Views surrounding agricultural development, especially in the 1960s and 1970s, were developed with an opinion that disvalued traditional, or what has been termed indigenous, knowledge. Intensification has been perceived in technical terms which are very narrowly defined, with an emphasis on machinery, pesticides, and synthetic chemical fertilizers, and where industrial factory production systems replace reliance upon the local ecosystem and local agropastoral by-products in a labor-intensive process. This process involves the close integration of the raising of livestock with agriculture in order to maintain soil fertility.
Close-Settled Zone of Nigeria. This account is significant due to the scale and length of time over which the region has carried out intensive farming. With a population of approximately five million in the region excluding the more than one and a half million living in Kano city, the challenges facing the people of the area, in terms of meeting their growing needs, are great. More than eighty-five percent of the surface land in this area is dedicated to farmland, and the farmers themselves are strongly oriented towards the conservation of land resources. They pay particular attention to the protection of organic matter in the soil. This is demonstrated by their management of animals and their wastes. During the dry season animals are only penned at night and are left free to roam the fields by day. Although they are confined to their pens and fed on cut fodder during the growing season, their bedding and manure are mixed and returned to the fields. In addition to this, crop residue, tree browse, and weeds are fed to the animals thereby recycling the nutrients.
Sustainability
Sustainability is the capacity to endure. For humans, sustainability is the long-term maintenance of well being, which has environmental, economic, and social dimensions, and encompasses the concept of union, an interdependent relationship and mutual responsible position with all living and non...
in northern Nigeria requires flexibility in both ecological management as well as economic activity. Rainfall occurs only seasonally – and there is a pronounced dry season – however, rainfall is often intensive when it does come, making it necessary for farmers to employ soil moisture conservation techniques. The main crops grown in the region are millet
Millet
The millets are a group of small-seeded species of cereal crops or grains, widely grown around the world for food and fodder. They do not form a taxonomic group, but rather a functional or agronomic one. Their essential similarities are that they are small-seeded grasses grown in difficult...
, sorghum
Sorghum
Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, one of which is raised for grain and many of which are used as fodder plants either cultivated or as part of pasture. The plants are cultivated in warmer climates worldwide. Species are native to tropical and subtropical regions of all continents...
, and cowpea
Cowpea
The Cowpea is one of several species of the widely cultivated genus Vigna. Four cultivated subspecies are recognised:*Vigna unguiculata subsp. cylindrica Catjang...
, while groundnut
Groundnut
Groundnut can mean:* Seeds that ripen underground, of the following plants, all in the Faboideae subfamily of the legumes:** Arachis villosulicarpa** Bambara groundnut** Hausa groundnut** Peanut* Roots and tubers:** Apios americana...
and sesame
Sesame
Sesame is a flowering plant in the genus Sesamum. Numerous wild relatives occur in Africa and a smaller number in India. It is widely naturalized in tropical regions around the world and is cultivated for its edible seeds, which grow in pods....
are significant minor crops. Wild foods also serve as an important supplement to the diet, especially during times of food shortage. The bulk of crops are grown during the rainy season which begins in June or July, when temperatures are warmer. There has traditionally been a division between sedentary farmers made up of the Manga
Manga
Manga is the Japanese word for "comics" and consists of comics and print cartoons . In the West, the term "manga" has been appropriated to refer specifically to comics created in Japan, or by Japanese authors, in the Japanese language and conforming to the style developed in Japan in the late 19th...
and Hausa
Hausa people
The Hausa are one of the largest ethnic groups in West Africa. They are a Sahelian people chiefly located in northern Nigeria and southeastern Niger, but having significant numbers living in regions of Cameroon, Ghana, Cote d'Ivoire, Chad and Sudan...
people, and the nomadic pastoralists known as Fulani, however this has diminished in recent times. Historically, development plans for this region have focused on the use of imported technology and irrigation schemes, while neglecting traditional farming practices of the region. These traditional practices generally focus on the close integration between the raising of livestock and farming, and have been studied in detail in the Kano Close Settled Zone of Northern Nigeria.
Introduction
Due to the social and environmental conditions in northern Nigeria, flexibility of both ecological management as well as economic activity are vital components of any strategy for agricultural and rural livelihood in the region. It is often contended that African farmers are unsuccessful at intensifying agriculture through the utilization of a method that is environmentally sustainable as well as economically productive. The vegetation of northern Nigeria is predominantly marginal or short grass savannahSavannah
Savannah or savanna is a type of grassland.It can also mean:-People:* Savannah King, a Canadian freestyle swimmer* Savannah Outen, a singer who gained popularity on You Tube...
(see Figure 1), and this region is characterized by a relatively hot climate with seasonal rainfall and a marked dry season. The pressures of an increasing population (see Figure 2) are understood to cause increasing food demands by urban consumers and rural farmers, the expansion of areas of cultivation, reduced fallow intervals with a lack of inputs necessary to compensate, and as a result reduced soil fertility. This means that per capita
Per capita
Per capita is a Latin prepositional phrase: per and capita . The phrase thus means "by heads" or "for each head", i.e. per individual or per person...
and per hectare
Hectare
The hectare is a metric unit of area defined as 10,000 square metres , and primarily used in the measurement of land. In 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the are was defined as being 100 square metres and the hectare was thus 100 ares or 1/100 km2...
yields will decline and food will become scarce, especially for those in rural areas. However, it is possible that an increase in population density may in fact have positive rather than negative consequences for the economy as well as the environment. Studies carried out in the Kano Close-Settled Zone and the surrounding region indicated that in particular places at certain times, the intensification of agricultural practices can take place without the typically associated degradation. While there does exist poverty in the region, as well as people who are without sufficient food, there does not appear to be a decline in crop yields. Instead evidence suggests there has been a sustained effort to increase the production of food in an attempt to keep up with the increasing need.
Soils of the region
The soils in the northern region of Nigeria are categorized as reddish brown or brown soils of the semi-arid and arid regions. They are also known as tropical ferruginous soils and are considered to be comparable to Ferric Luvisols. These are sandy soils that are made up of about 85% sand. Their pHPH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
values range between 6.0 and 7.0, and their bulk densities are about 1.4 g/cm3. (See Figure 3.)
Conservation and control of soil moisture
In this region rainfall is often scarce but intensive, making the conservation and control of soil moisture a necessity. This is done by a process known as field ridging which not only maximizes infiltrationInfiltration
Infiltration may refer to:*Infiltration , a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning term for air leakage into buildings*Infiltration , downward movement of water through soil...
Infiltration is the process through which water moves downward into the soil. between rainfalls, but also conserves runoff in the furrows. The protection or planting of a variety of shrub and tree species aids in the conservation of biodiversity
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or an entire planet. Biodiversity is a measure of the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity is in part a function of climate. In terrestrial habitats, tropical regions are typically rich whereas polar regions...
as well as the control of wind and water erosion on the gently sloping farmlands of the region.
Common crops and food sources
The main crops in this area are millet, sorghum, and cowpea (see Figures 4 to 6), while groundnut and sesame are considered minor crops. Guna (cow) melon (Citrullus lanatus) has been recently added to crop production for market. It requires only one fall of rain, is planted late in the season, and grows on moisture that is left in the soil until it is harvested during the months preceding the next year’s rains. This crop is a significant supply of edible oil. Plants grown as field boundaries include the henna bushHenna
Henna is a flowering plant used since antiquity to dye skin, hair, fingernails, leather and wool. The name is also used for dye preparations derived from the plant, and for the art of temporary tattooing based on those dyes...
(Lawsonia inermis) as well as various grasses. Intercrop spreads are also planted among the grains; they often consist of cowpeas or groundnuts, which are nitrogen-fixing plants. A density of mature trees is also maintained.
Wild foods in northeastern Nigeria come from a wide range of plants, including trees; shrubs; and various herbaceous plants. They add diversity, flavor, and important vitamins and minerals necessary for healthy growth. Furthermore, they are used as livestock fodder; in agriculture, construction, and medicines; and for cultural reasons. These potential sources of food can be found in a range of habitats from farmland (as weeds), to fallow fields and grazing lands, as well as in the settlements themselves. These foods become particularly important in times of food shortage, such as during a drought or when access to food is limited due to socio-economic issues like poverty or warfare.
Agricultural timeline
The preparation of fields for farming is begun in April or May when the farmers clear shrubs. Sometimes grasses are burned in order to clear fields that have not been grazed by livestock. The beginning of the rainy season is in June or July and this is when most planting begins, although a few farmers may dry-plant before the rains begin. Fields where germinationGermination
Germination is the process in which a plant or fungus emerges from a seed or spore, respectively, and begins growth. The most common example of germination is the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm. However the growth of a sporeling from a spore, for example the...
has been successful are weeded using a locally-made hoe known as the ashasha.
In September, millet is harvested, followed closely by beans. In late October or November sorghum is harvested. In addition to this, farmers who do not wish for their cereal stalks to be consumed by livestock must also harvest these. Some farmers begin planting guna melon as the millet is harvested. However, guna melon is very vulnerable to pests, so the crop is not successful in every year. They are harvested from February to April if it is.
Agricultural land use pattern
Traditionally there has been a division between sedentary farmers made up of the Manga and the Hausa people, and the nomadic pastoralists known as Fulani (see Figure 7). However this has diminished and both groups now engage in livestock and crop production, although the priority for Fulanis is still the rearing of cattle, while for the Manga and Hausa, it is crop production.In northern Nigeria, research surrounding intensive agricultural practices has been taking place for a number of decades, especially in the Kano Close-Settled Zone. In the nineteenth century, the intensive agriculture carried out in this area of dense population surrounding Kano city was noted by western visitors like Henry Barth. By the year 1913 there was a maximum of one third of farmland in fallowFallow is a stage of crop rotation in which the land is left uncultivated, allowing nutrients to become replenished. in any particular year. The population densities of the rural area in this region climbed from 243 to 348 people per square kilometer between 1962 and 1991, but the land area under permanent cultivation remained approximately the same. In this time period the cultivated land per capita went from 0.36 to 0.29 hectares. However, there was no evidence of any significant decrease in the fertility of the soil. Furthermore, the average cereal crop yields as well as number of farm trees remained constant.
Agricultural development
Development plans for Nigeria, such as the Third Development Plan (1975–1980), have focused on the belief that the best way to achieve an increase in productivity is through new and usually imported technology combined with the teaching of farmers to become commercial businessmen. This paradigm assumes that larger and more sophisticated farming schemes are more able to produce surplus food in a marketable quantity. The focus is on management, agricultural companies, and wealthier farmers, while the poorest farmers, and in fact the bulk of farmers, are ignored. Little attention was given to strategies which may aid the bulk of the farmers in the region, such as improved roads, labor, marketing, and land co-operatives.This type of development plan is exemplified by the Kano River Project in Kadawa which was built primarily for the production of wheat
Wheat
Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near East, but now cultivated worldwide. In 2007 world production of wheat was 607 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize and rice...
Wheat is a temperate crop that is not well adapted to tropical climates, but is imported in large quantities in order to produce bread for the urban populations in the region. in the dry season. This large scale irrigation scheme combined large costs for set-up,A large portion of this initial investment did not remain within the country. with significant ongoing costs for farmers since they needed to pay for the use of equipment like tractors, seeds, and pesticides. The productivity of wheat achieved through this production method was well below the projections made by the Dutch consulting firm NEDECO, which was involved with this project. The Kano River Project endeavored to radically change the farming system from one where farmers primarily grew their own food and were essentially self-sufficient, to one where they grew food for the market and must buy food to meet their own needs. Given the problems, and few realized benefits, associated with this type of agriculture the farmers of this region were quite resistant to these massive changes and the Kano River Project is only a fraction of the extent that was planned. Furthermore, large scale irrigation projects such as these have a characteristically poor performance record and are often associated with the salinizationSalinization is the build-up of salts in the soil. It is also often used to refer to alkalization which is the build-up of alkalis in the soil. of soils.
Historically, in sub-Saharan Africa intensive agriculture carried out by indigenous peoples has been the exception rather than the rule. Until recently, this area has been characterized by a large amount of land with a relatively small labor force available to work this land. Most Africans have simply moved when confronted with increasing population and declining crop yields. Views surrounding agricultural development, especially in the 1960s and 1970s, were developed with an opinion that disvalued traditional, or what has been termed indigenous, knowledge. Intensification has been perceived in technical terms which are very narrowly defined, with an emphasis on machinery, pesticides, and synthetic chemical fertilizers, and where industrial factory production systems replace reliance upon the local ecosystem and local agropastoral by-products in a labor-intensive process. This process involves the close integration of the raising of livestock with agriculture in order to maintain soil fertility.
The Kano Close-Settled Zone: A Case Study
An example of the close integration between agriculture and the raising of livestock occurs in the KanoKano
Kano is a city in Nigeria and the capital of Kano State in Northern Nigeria. Its metropolitan population is the second largest in Nigeria after Lagos. The Kano Urban area covers 137 sq.km and comprises six Local Government Area - Kano Municipal, Fagge, Dala, Gwale, Tarauni and Nassarawa - with a...
Close-Settled Zone of Nigeria. This account is significant due to the scale and length of time over which the region has carried out intensive farming. With a population of approximately five million in the region excluding the more than one and a half million living in Kano city, the challenges facing the people of the area, in terms of meeting their growing needs, are great. More than eighty-five percent of the surface land in this area is dedicated to farmland, and the farmers themselves are strongly oriented towards the conservation of land resources. They pay particular attention to the protection of organic matter in the soil. This is demonstrated by their management of animals and their wastes. During the dry season animals are only penned at night and are left free to roam the fields by day. Although they are confined to their pens and fed on cut fodder during the growing season, their bedding and manure are mixed and returned to the fields. In addition to this, crop residue, tree browse, and weeds are fed to the animals thereby recycling the nutrients.