Thomas Percival
Encyclopedia
Thomas Percival FRS FRSE FSA (1740–1804) was an English
physician and author, best known for crafting perhaps the first modern code of medical ethics
. He drew up a pamphlet with the code in 1794 and wrote an expanded version in 1803, in which he reportedly coined the expression "medical ethics".
He was a pioneering campaigner for public health
measures and factory regulation in Manchester
.
at Lancashire
, the son of Joseph and Margaret (née Orred) Percival. He lost both his parents when he was three years old, so his older sister was responsible for his early education. Once he was old enough, he was placed in a private academy in his home town. He also spent time in a free grammar-school. In 1757, he was enrolled as the first student at Warrington Academy
. After achieving a good reputation in classical and theological studies, he transferred to Edinburgh
in 1761 (as a Dissenter he could not attend an English University). He achieved his M.D. degree in 1765 and became a fellow to the Royal Society
, through a recommendation by his friend and patron Lord Willoughby de Parham
, the same year.
British health reformer and ethicist. Educated at Edinburgh and then a prominent member of the Manchester Industrial and Philosophical Society, he holds an important place in the history of epidemiology for his analysis of the Bills of Mortality from 1772–6, and for his code of medical ethics. The latter was initially circulated privately as a book on jurisprudence in 1794 and as a result of solicited comments from colleagues then published in an expanded form with a change in title to Medical ethics in 1803. Percival had been asked by the Manchester Royal Infirmary to help with an internal dispute and became particularly concerned with the divisions that had arisen among the different branches of the profession — the physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries with their different backgrounds of training (university, hospital, and apprenticeship respectively). But he did not merely concern himself with intraprofessional relationships: he also laid down a code for conduct towards patients, whether rich or poor, and his ideas were rapidly taken up by the USA, Australia, and Canada — in fact, the ethical code introduced by the newly formed American Medical Association in 1847 used several passages taken directly from his book.
. He led a group of doctors to supervise textile mills, their report influenced Robert Peel's
to introduce the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act of 1802. The legislation stipulated that children could work only 12 hours per day, walls had to be washed, and visitors had to be admitted to factories so that they could make health-related suggestions.
Percival's Medical Ethics served as a key source for the American Medical Association
(AMA) code, adopted in 1847. Though hyperbolic in its recognition of Percival, the AMA itself states:
As one expert writes, "The Percivalian code asserted the moral authority and independence of physicians in service to others, affirmed the profession's responsibility to care for the sick, and emphasized individual honor."
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
physician and author, best known for crafting perhaps the first modern code of medical ethics
Medical ethics
Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology.-History:Historically,...
. He drew up a pamphlet with the code in 1794 and wrote an expanded version in 1803, in which he reportedly coined the expression "medical ethics".
He was a pioneering campaigner for public health
Public health
Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals" . It is concerned with threats to health based on population health...
measures and factory regulation in Manchester
Manchester
Manchester is a city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England. According to the Office for National Statistics, the 2010 mid-year population estimate for Manchester was 498,800. Manchester lies within one of the UK's largest metropolitan areas, the metropolitan county of Greater...
.
Life
He was born at WarringtonWarrington
Warrington is a town, borough and unitary authority area of Cheshire, England. It stands on the banks of the River Mersey, which is tidal to the west of the weir at Howley. It lies 16 miles east of Liverpool, 19 miles west of Manchester and 8 miles south of St Helens...
at Lancashire
Lancashire
Lancashire is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in the North West of England. It takes its name from the city of Lancaster, and is sometimes known as the County of Lancaster. Although Lancaster is still considered to be the county town, Lancashire County Council is based in Preston...
, the son of Joseph and Margaret (née Orred) Percival. He lost both his parents when he was three years old, so his older sister was responsible for his early education. Once he was old enough, he was placed in a private academy in his home town. He also spent time in a free grammar-school. In 1757, he was enrolled as the first student at Warrington Academy
Warrington Academy
Warrington Academy, active as a teaching establishment from 1756 to 1782, was a prominent dissenting academy, that is, a school or college set up by those who dissented from the state church in England...
. After achieving a good reputation in classical and theological studies, he transferred to Edinburgh
University of Edinburgh
The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1583, is a public research university located in Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city, with many of the buildings in the historic Old Town belonging to the university...
in 1761 (as a Dissenter he could not attend an English University). He achieved his M.D. degree in 1765 and became a fellow to the Royal Society
Royal Society
The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, known simply as the Royal Society, is a learned society for science, and is possibly the oldest such society in existence. Founded in November 1660, it was granted a Royal Charter by King Charles II as the "Royal Society of London"...
, through a recommendation by his friend and patron Lord Willoughby de Parham
Baron Willoughby of Parham
Baron Willoughby of Parham was a title in the Peerage of England with two creations. The first creation was for Sir William Willoughby who was raised to the peerage under letters patent in 1547, with the remainder to his heirs male of body...
, the same year.
British health reformer and ethicist. Educated at Edinburgh and then a prominent member of the Manchester Industrial and Philosophical Society, he holds an important place in the history of epidemiology for his analysis of the Bills of Mortality from 1772–6, and for his code of medical ethics. The latter was initially circulated privately as a book on jurisprudence in 1794 and as a result of solicited comments from colleagues then published in an expanded form with a change in title to Medical ethics in 1803. Percival had been asked by the Manchester Royal Infirmary to help with an internal dispute and became particularly concerned with the divisions that had arisen among the different branches of the profession — the physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries with their different backgrounds of training (university, hospital, and apprenticeship respectively). But he did not merely concern himself with intraprofessional relationships: he also laid down a code for conduct towards patients, whether rich or poor, and his ideas were rapidly taken up by the USA, Australia, and Canada — in fact, the ethical code introduced by the newly formed American Medical Association in 1847 used several passages taken directly from his book.
Occupational health and medical ethics
Percival is also known for his early work in Occupational healthOccupational safety and health
Occupational safety and health is a cross-disciplinary area concerned with protecting the safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. The goal of all occupational safety and health programs is to foster a safe work environment...
. He led a group of doctors to supervise textile mills, their report influenced Robert Peel's
Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet
Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet , was a British politician and industrialist and one of early textile manufacturers of the Industrial Revolution...
to introduce the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act of 1802. The legislation stipulated that children could work only 12 hours per day, walls had to be washed, and visitors had to be admitted to factories so that they could make health-related suggestions.
Percival's Medical Ethics served as a key source for the American Medical Association
American Medical Association
The American Medical Association , founded in 1847 and incorporated in 1897, is the largest association of medical doctors and medical students in the United States.-Scope and operations:...
(AMA) code, adopted in 1847. Though hyperbolic in its recognition of Percival, the AMA itself states:
The most significant contribution to Western medical ethical history subsequent to Hippocrates was made by Thomas Percival, an English physician, philosopher, and writer. In 1803, he published his Code of Medical Ethics. His personality, his interest in sociological matters, and his close association with the Manchester InfirmaryManchester Royal InfirmaryThe Manchester Royal Infirmary is a hospital in Manchester, England which was founded by Charles White in 1752 as a cottage hospital capable of caring for twelve patients. Manchester Royal Infirmary is part of a larger NHS Trust incorporating several hospitals called Central Manchester University...
led to the preparation of a scheme of professional conduct relative to hospitals and other charities from which he drafted the code that bears his name.
As one expert writes, "The Percivalian code asserted the moral authority and independence of physicians in service to others, affirmed the profession's responsibility to care for the sick, and emphasized individual honor."
Selected works
- Essays medical and experimental: on the following subjects, viz. I. The empiric. II. The dogmatic. Or, arguments for and against the use of theory and reasoning in physick. III. Experiments and observations on astringents and bitters IV. On the uses and operation of blisters. V. On the resemblance between chyle and milk. London: for Joseph Johnson and B. Davenport, 1767 (followed by later editions)
- Essays medical and experimental [Vol. II]: on the following subjects: 1. On the Columbo root. 2. On the orchis root. 3. On the waters of Buxton and Matlock ... 4. On the medicinal uses of fixed air. 5. On the antiseptic and sweetening powers ... of factitious air. 6. On the noxious vapours of charcoal. 7. On the atrabilis. 8. On sea salt. 9. On coffee. To which are added, select histories of diseases ... London: for Joseph Johnson, 1773
- Essays, medical philosophical and experimental; By Thomas Percival, M.D. F.R.S. and A.S. Lond. F.R.S. and R.M.S. Edinb. Member of the Royal Society of Medicine at Paris ; of the Royal Society of Agriculture at Lyons ; and of the American Philosophy Soc. at Philadelphia, &c. &c. The fourth edition, revised and enlarged. 2 vols. Warrington: printed by W. Eyres, for J. Johnson, London, 1788–89
- Medical ethics; or a Code of institutes and precepts, adapted to the professional interests pf physicians and surgeons. Manchester: S. Russell, 1803 (followed by later editions)
Further reading
- Brockbank, E. M. (1929) "History of Collegiate Teaching: some pioneers; Thomas Percival". In: Book of Manchester and Salford. Manchester: Falkner & Co.; pp. 30–33.