The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam
Encyclopedia
The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam is a book by historian
Bat Ye'or
.
In the first part of the book the author provides historical survey of the effects and consequences of enforced dhimmitude
on the Jewish and Christian
communities living under the Muslim rule in the Middle East
.
The second part presents 244 pages of historical documents and primary sources from various dhimmi communities from all parts of the Muslim world, including speeches of various influential Arab
s, texts from various middle-age sources and eyewitness reports taken from British
consul
s throughout centuries from archives testifying to the conditions of the dhimmi communities. The book also contains rare pictures and photographs depicting the dhimmi and his community.
to 622 CE when Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, began a conquest of pagan Arab populations and territories in the Arab deserts and peninsulas. The author contends that Muhammad took advantage of non-belligerency pacts to attack and subjugate populations. In 628, after a 45 day long siege of Khaybar
, the inhabitants capitulated under terms of a treaty known as the dhimma. According to this pact Muhammad allowed the Jews
living there to continue to cultivate the land on the condition that they pay tribute. This became the precedent to all future subjugations.
communities in the Middle East from the mid-seventh century to the twentieth century.
stated:
Historian
A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the study of all history in time. If the individual is...
Bat Ye'or
Bat Ye'or
Bat Ye'or is a pseudonym of Gisèle Littman, née Orebi, an Egyptian-born British writer and political commentator who writes about the history of non-Muslims in the Middle East, and in particular the history of Christian and Jewish dhimmis living under Islamic governments.She is the author of eight...
.
In the first part of the book the author provides historical survey of the effects and consequences of enforced dhimmitude
Dhimmitude
Dhimmitude is a neologism first found in French denoting an attitude of concession, surrender and appeasement towards Islamic demands. It is derived by adding the productive suffix -tude to the Arabic language adjective dhimmi, which literally means protected and refers to a non-Muslim subject of a...
on the Jewish and Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
communities living under the Muslim rule in the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
.
The second part presents 244 pages of historical documents and primary sources from various dhimmi communities from all parts of the Muslim world, including speeches of various influential Arab
Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs , are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing...
s, texts from various middle-age sources and eyewitness reports taken from British
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
consul
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
s throughout centuries from archives testifying to the conditions of the dhimmi communities. The book also contains rare pictures and photographs depicting the dhimmi and his community.
Historical precedence
The author traces the historical origins of dhimmitudeDhimmitude
Dhimmitude is a neologism first found in French denoting an attitude of concession, surrender and appeasement towards Islamic demands. It is derived by adding the productive suffix -tude to the Arabic language adjective dhimmi, which literally means protected and refers to a non-Muslim subject of a...
to 622 CE when Muhammad, the prophet of Islam, began a conquest of pagan Arab populations and territories in the Arab deserts and peninsulas. The author contends that Muhammad took advantage of non-belligerency pacts to attack and subjugate populations. In 628, after a 45 day long siege of Khaybar
Khaybar
Khaybar is the name of an oasis some 153 km to the north of Medina , Saudi Arabia. It was inhabited by Jews before the rise of Islam, and was conquered by Muhammad in 629 AD.-Pre-Islamic Khaybar:...
, the inhabitants capitulated under terms of a treaty known as the dhimma. According to this pact Muhammad allowed the Jews
Jews
The Jews , also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and ethnoreligious group originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation...
living there to continue to cultivate the land on the condition that they pay tribute. This became the precedent to all future subjugations.
Muslim attitudes towards non-Muslims
In the book the author states that there were three territorial divisions of the world from the perspective of Islam:- House of war: The land of the non-believers (harbiHarbiHarbi is a term of classical islamic law, which refers to a non-Muslim, who does not live under the condition of the dhimma. Harbi is counterterm to dhimmi. Sometimes the terms appear in the combination "kafir harbi" resp. "kafir dhimmi".The harbi is the inhabitant of the dar al-harb...
s), called the lands of war (dar al-harb) where wars were usually fought.
- House of truce: The land of non-believers currently under truce which is in respite between wars (dar al-hudna). There are only two circumstances that justify that a truce be engaged with infidels by the Islamic authority. The first circumstance is one is where the Muslim forces are too weak to win over the infidels and the truce will allow them to regroup and restrengthen, and the second one is whereby infidel states pay a tributeTributeA tribute is wealth, often in kind, that one party gives to another as a sign of respect or, as was often the case in historical contexts, of submission or allegiance. Various ancient states, which could be called suzerains, exacted tribute from areas they had conquered or threatened to conquer...
to the Muslims or contribute by numerous services to the advancement of Islam. Truce is not a natural condition; it is bought by tribute. If the infidels cannot provide the tribute in exchange for the truce, hostilities are resumed. Just as now, breaking a contract never goes well with either party.
- Land of IslamDar al-IslamThe idea of geographical divisions along religious lines i.e. the dur is neither mentioned in the Qur'an nor in the sayings of the Prophet , which are considered the primary sources in Islamic jurisprudence...
: The land under control of Islam (dar al-IslamDar al-IslamThe idea of geographical divisions along religious lines i.e. the dur is neither mentioned in the Qur'an nor in the sayings of the Prophet , which are considered the primary sources in Islamic jurisprudence...
). These people are granted a status known as dhimmis and they are subjected to special provisions that permit them to privately practice their faith under restricted conditions, requiring them to pay a tax and were treated with respect by the early Rashidun caliphs (two who were Muhammad's companions, and were regarded as examplars of Islamic rule). The manner in which the rules of dhimmitude were applied varied according to the political circumstances and the disposition of the ruler. There were periods of tolerance which gave a small degree of security to the dhimmis. However, overall these were seen as peaceful times and the religious freedom allowed brought about a lot of byzantine controlled areas where religion was strictly forced into Islamic controlled territories.
Rules of the dhimmi
- Rules would be formulated to allow the dhimmi due process of the law. Dress codes were indeed instated but only to differentiate between groups. Not for racial or discriminational purposes. They would be just as competitive in a street market as the Muslim selling products next to him. DehumanizationDehumanizationDehumanization is to make somebody less human by taking away his or her individuality, the creative and interesting aspects of his or her personality, or his or her compassion and sensitivity towards others. Dehumanization may be directed by an organization or may be the composite of individual...
of the dhimmi was very uncommon, and generally the all were treated as friends and neighbors. Various forms of physical abuse were very uncommon and a lot less than in Europe during the middle agesMiddle AgesThe Middle Ages is a periodization of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The Middle Ages follows the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 and precedes the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period of a three-period division of Western history: Classic, Medieval and Modern...
. Dhimmis were prohibited from working in some positions in Islamic Jurisdipidence.
Penalties for breaking the rules
- The non-observance of these rules would entail a punishment or fine, just as Muslim citizens would be if breaking the law. The pacts created were very lenient to the members. They could go on living their lives normally while being protected by the Muslim armies. And in exchange for the tributes, did not have to fight for the Muslims when war came about.
Conclusions of the author
Bat Ye'or contends in the book that the imposition of the Islamic laws on the dhimma (non-Muslim community) has been the reason for the decline of the Jewish and ChristianChristian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
communities in the Middle East from the mid-seventh century to the twentieth century.
Reviews
Author and scholar Daniel PipesDaniel Pipes
Daniel Pipes is an American historian, writer, and political commentator. He is the founder and director of the Middle East Forum and its Campus Watch project, and editor of its Middle East Quarterly journal...
stated:
- In a profound study culminating three decades of scholarship, Bat Ye'or shows the debilitating consequences of the Muslim sense of superiority toward peoples of other religions. In the author's words, this is a "painful history of hatred, suffering, death, heroism, betrayal, and cowardice;" it is also a history that is very much alive even today and needs squarely to be confronted if Muslims are truly to live in harmony with non-Muslims. For this reason, Bat Ye'or's work is of major importance. --Daniel Pipes, Director, Middle East ForumMiddle East ForumThe Middle East Forum is an American conservative think tank founded in 1990 by Daniel Pipes, who also serves as its director. MEF became a 5013 non-profit organization in 1994...
(Philadelphia)