Task switching (psychology)
Encyclopedia
Task switching is an experimental research paradigm frequently used in cognitive
and experimental
psychology
. It is mainly used to investigate executive functions
.
Jersild's (1927) alternating-task procedure. His paradigm assumed that processing is the same on repetition and alternation trials except for task switching . Rogers and Monsell (1995) suggested that alternation trials place more demands on working memory because subjects must remember two tasks on alternation trials, but only one on repetition trials. To overcome these problems, the alternating-runs procedure was introduced in which subjects alternate between short runs of different tasks (e.g., AABBAABB). Repetitions occur within runs (e.g., AA, BB), and alternations occur between runs (e.g., AB, BA). Memory load and the requirement for monitoring is the same for repetitions and alternations.
Task-Set. A task set is defined as an effective intention to perform a task which is accomplished by configuring ones mental state (e.g. attentional settings) to be in accordance with the task-specific operations which define the to be performed task when several task responses are possible . Tasks that have been used to define these task sets include: categorization of numbers, letters, or symbols; identification of colors or words using Stroop effect stimuli; location judgments; semantic and episodic memory tasks; and arithmetic problems.
Switch Cost. Performance on these tasks is disrupted when a switch from one task to another is required. This disruption is characterized by a slower performance and decrease in accuracy on a given task A on a trial that follows the performance of a different task B as opposed to performance on task A when it follows another trial of task A. The difference in accuracy and performance between a task repeat (A-A) and a task switch (A-B) is known as the switch cost. The switch cost remains even ample warning of an upcoming switch, thus it is thought to reflect the functioning of myriad executive control processes ranging from attention shifting, goal retrieval, task set reconfiguration processes, and inhibition of prior task set.
Task-Set Reconfiguration
This theory assumes that once the task set is implemented, it stays in a given state of activation of until it has to be changed, such as when a new task is presented
. Consequently, proponents argues, switch costs arise from an endogenous, executive control process that reconfigures the cognitive system to implement the relevant task set for task alternations.
Automatic Processes
Task-set inertia
Task-Set Inhibition
Task-set priming
The explicit task-cuing procedure was developed to investigate the time course of task switching. The interval between the presentation of the cue indicating which task to perform and the presentation of the target stimulus can be manipulated to demonstrate the effect of available processing time on performance
Two models explain the effects of cues on switch costs:
Task Switching Model. This task switching model assumes the role of executive control. If the cue repeats, the executive does nothing, and the target is processed in accordance with the task set from the previous trial. If the cue alternates, the executive switches tasks before processing the target. Switching takes time and creates a switch cost. Predicts equal RTs for cue repetitions and task repetitions, and slower RTs for task alternations because this is the only condition where task switches actually occur.
Compound-stimulus model.Does not assume executive control. The cue and the target jointly specify a unique response on each trial, so subjects can encode the cue and the target and choose the response associated with the compound. No task switching is required. Cues are encoded faster on repetition trials than on alternation trials because encoding benefits from repetition. Switch costs thereby reflect encoding benefits on repetition trials, not task switching, so it predicts faster RTs for cue repetitions than for task repetitions, and equal RTs for task repetitions and task alternations .
Experimental Evidence:
Support for No Executive control. To distinguish the two models, the experiments used two cues for each task with three types of trials: cue repetitions, in which the current cue was the same as the previous cue; task repetitions, in which the current cue was different from the previous cue but specified the same task; and task alternations, in which the current cue was different from the previous cue and specified a different task.
The data showed large RT differences between cue repetitions and task repetitions (same task, different cue), and negligible differences between task repetitions and task alternations, consistent with the compound-stimulus model. Thus, the switch costs observed in the explicit task-cuing procedure may not reflect executive processes.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is a subdiscipline of psychology exploring internal mental processes.It is the study of how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and solve problems.Cognitive psychology differs from previous psychological approaches in two key ways....
and experimental
Experimental psychology
Experimental psychology is a methodological approach, rather than a subject, and encompasses varied fields within psychology. Experimental psychologists have traditionally conducted research, published articles, and taught classes on neuroscience, developmental psychology, sensation, perception,...
psychology
Psychology
Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society...
. It is mainly used to investigate executive functions
Executive functions
The executive system is a theorized cognitive system in psychology that controls and manages other cognitive processes. It is responsible for processes that are sometimes referred to as the executive function, executive functions, supervisory attentional system, or cognitive control...
.
Background & History
Human behavior and cognition are characterized by the ability to adapt to a dynamic environment –whether in attention, action, or both. This ability to shift attention has been investigated in the laboratory setting since the first use of the task switch paradigm in 1927 which explores the control processes that reconfigure mental resources for a change of task by requiring subjects complete a set of simple, yet engaging interleaving operations which must be performed in an alternating or repeating sequence.Jersild's (1927) alternating-task procedure. His paradigm assumed that processing is the same on repetition and alternation trials except for task switching . Rogers and Monsell (1995) suggested that alternation trials place more demands on working memory because subjects must remember two tasks on alternation trials, but only one on repetition trials. To overcome these problems, the alternating-runs procedure was introduced in which subjects alternate between short runs of different tasks (e.g., AABBAABB). Repetitions occur within runs (e.g., AA, BB), and alternations occur between runs (e.g., AB, BA). Memory load and the requirement for monitoring is the same for repetitions and alternations.
Task-Set. A task set is defined as an effective intention to perform a task which is accomplished by configuring ones mental state (e.g. attentional settings) to be in accordance with the task-specific operations which define the to be performed task when several task responses are possible . Tasks that have been used to define these task sets include: categorization of numbers, letters, or symbols; identification of colors or words using Stroop effect stimuli; location judgments; semantic and episodic memory tasks; and arithmetic problems.
Switch Cost. Performance on these tasks is disrupted when a switch from one task to another is required. This disruption is characterized by a slower performance and decrease in accuracy on a given task A on a trial that follows the performance of a different task B as opposed to performance on task A when it follows another trial of task A. The difference in accuracy and performance between a task repeat (A-A) and a task switch (A-B) is known as the switch cost. The switch cost remains even ample warning of an upcoming switch, thus it is thought to reflect the functioning of myriad executive control processes ranging from attention shifting, goal retrieval, task set reconfiguration processes, and inhibition of prior task set.
Theories
Executive Control of ProcessingTask-Set Reconfiguration
This theory assumes that once the task set is implemented, it stays in a given state of activation of until it has to be changed, such as when a new task is presented
. Consequently, proponents argues, switch costs arise from an endogenous, executive control process that reconfigures the cognitive system to implement the relevant task set for task alternations.
Automatic Processes
Task-set inertia
- To achieve behavioral stability in the face of interference, strongly activated task sets are needed. However, strongly activated task sets should also be particularly difficult to get rid of Consequently, task sets persist over time and interfere proactively with the establishment of new task set configurations (see proactive interference). This residual activation of task sets in memory from the recent performance of a task can contribute to automatic influences on performing a new task beyond voluntary control. For example, it has been proposed that less-practiced tasks require more support in memory which will result in greater task set inertia and thus can be expected to produce: :more proactive interference seen in larger switch costs. Future research must determine whether active or passive processes overcome task-set inertia
Task-Set Inhibition
- Asserts that switching between tasks requires the just-completed task to be suppressed to allow a new task to be completed. Support from the theory comes from research which has observed larger response times when returning to a task after an intermediate task than when completing three, or more, different tasks in a row—strong evidence :against activation only theories.
- For example, for tasks A, B, and C the response times for the third task will be slower in the case of an A-B-A sequence than a C-B-A sequence. In a series of experiments it was shown that this inhibitory process is not the result of priming so it is not an automatic process. Incomplete inhibition is thought to be responsible for the residual costs :that occur even after long cue-stimulus intervals .
Task-set priming
- Most task-switching experiments use the same stimuli for both tasks (e.g. pictures for location judgment tasks or words for semantic judgment tasks), so the current stimuli may prime (make more available) the previous task set. Consequently, facing the same stimulus in different tasks produces cognitive costs, and it may be mainly these costs :that are measured by switch costs.
- Studies have found that non-ambiguity of the stimuli (and non-overlap of responses) with respect to each of the possible tasks is sufficient to eliminate the costs of task switching . An important challenge for future research is to determine whether active or passive processes overcome task-set priming.
The Switch Cost
Explicit task cuing to explore switch costsThe explicit task-cuing procedure was developed to investigate the time course of task switching. The interval between the presentation of the cue indicating which task to perform and the presentation of the target stimulus can be manipulated to demonstrate the effect of available processing time on performance
Two models explain the effects of cues on switch costs:
Task Switching Model. This task switching model assumes the role of executive control. If the cue repeats, the executive does nothing, and the target is processed in accordance with the task set from the previous trial. If the cue alternates, the executive switches tasks before processing the target. Switching takes time and creates a switch cost. Predicts equal RTs for cue repetitions and task repetitions, and slower RTs for task alternations because this is the only condition where task switches actually occur.
Compound-stimulus model.Does not assume executive control. The cue and the target jointly specify a unique response on each trial, so subjects can encode the cue and the target and choose the response associated with the compound. No task switching is required. Cues are encoded faster on repetition trials than on alternation trials because encoding benefits from repetition. Switch costs thereby reflect encoding benefits on repetition trials, not task switching, so it predicts faster RTs for cue repetitions than for task repetitions, and equal RTs for task repetitions and task alternations .
Experimental Evidence:
Support for No Executive control. To distinguish the two models, the experiments used two cues for each task with three types of trials: cue repetitions, in which the current cue was the same as the previous cue; task repetitions, in which the current cue was different from the previous cue but specified the same task; and task alternations, in which the current cue was different from the previous cue and specified a different task.
The data showed large RT differences between cue repetitions and task repetitions (same task, different cue), and negligible differences between task repetitions and task alternations, consistent with the compound-stimulus model. Thus, the switch costs observed in the explicit task-cuing procedure may not reflect executive processes.