Switch reference
Encyclopedia
In linguistics
, switch-reference (SR) describes any clause-level morpheme
that signals whether certain prominent arguments in 'adjacent' clauses co-refer
. In most cases, it marks whether the subject
of the verb in one clause is co-referent with that of the previous clause, or of a subordinate clause to the matrix (main) clause dominating it.
The Washo language
of California and Nevada exhibits a switch-reference system. When the subject of one verb is the same as the subject of the following verb, then the verb takes no switch-reference marker. However, if the subject of one verb differs from the subject of the following verb, then the verb takes the "different subject" marker, -š (examples from Mithun 1999:269):
The Seri language
of northwestern Mexico also has a switch-reference system which is similar in most ways to those of other languages except for one very salient fact: the relevant argument in a passive clause is not the superficial subject of the passive verb but rather the always unexpressed underlying subject. In clauses with subject raising, it is the raised subject that is relevant.
or weather verbs, have no subject at all, yet can bear as well as trigger SR.
(Watkins 1993):
SR-markers often appear attached to verbs, but are not a verbal category. They often appear attached to sentence-initial particles, sentence-initial recapitulative verbs, adverbial conjunctions ('when', 'because', etc.), or coordinators ('and','but', though it seems never 'or'), relativizers ('which,'that'), or sentence complementizer
s ('that'). They can also appear as free morphemes, or as differing agreement paradigms. However, most SR languages are SOV languages, with verbs as well as complementizers and conjunctions coming at the end of clauses. Therefore, SR often appears attached to verbs, a fact that has led to the common though erroneous claim that SR is a verbal category.
One certain typological fact about SR is that SR-markers appear at the 'edges' of clauses. It is found at the edge of either a subordinate clause (referring to the matrix clause), or at the edge of a coordinate clause (referring to the previous clause). It is also very common in clause-chaining languages of New Guinea, where it is found at the edge of medial clauses.
SR is also sensitive to syntactic structure. It can skip a clause that is string-adjacent (spoken one right after another), and refer to a matrix clause. For instance, given the configuration [ A [ B ] [ C ] ], where B and C are subordinate clauses to A, any SR-marking on C refers to A, not B.
SR spreads generally by areal diffusion, accounting for the fact that the morphological marking varies from one language to the next.
Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Linguistics can be broadly broken into three categories or subfields of study: language form, language meaning, and language in context....
, switch-reference (SR) describes any clause-level morpheme
Morpheme
In linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest semantically meaningful unit in a language. The field of study dedicated to morphemes is called morphology. A morpheme is not identical to a word, and the principal difference between the two is that a morpheme may or may not stand alone, whereas a word,...
that signals whether certain prominent arguments in 'adjacent' clauses co-refer
Reference
Reference is derived from Middle English referren, from Middle French rèférer, from Latin referre, "to carry back", formed from the prefix re- and ferre, "to bear"...
. In most cases, it marks whether the subject
Subject (grammar)
The subject is one of the two main constituents of a clause, according to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle and that is associated with phrase structure grammars; the other constituent is the predicate. According to another tradition, i.e...
of the verb in one clause is co-referent with that of the previous clause, or of a subordinate clause to the matrix (main) clause dominating it.
Meanings of switch-reference
The basic distinction made by a switch-reference system is whether the following clause has the same subject (SS) or a different subject (DS). This is known as canonical switch-reference. For purposes of switch-reference, subject is defined as it is for languages with a nominative–accusative alignment: a subject is the sole argument of an intransitive clause, or the agent of a transitive one. This holds even in languages with a high degree of ergativity.The Washo language
Washo language
The Washo language is an endangered Native American language isolate spoken by the Washo on the California–Nevada border in the drainages of the Truckee and Carson Rivers, especially around Lake Tahoe...
of California and Nevada exhibits a switch-reference system. When the subject of one verb is the same as the subject of the following verb, then the verb takes no switch-reference marker. However, if the subject of one verb differs from the subject of the following verb, then the verb takes the "different subject" marker, -š (examples from Mithun 1999:269):
| yá·saʼ | duléʼšugi | yá·saʼ | gedumbéc̓edášaʼi |
| again | he.is.reaching.toward.him | again | he.is.going.to.poke.him |
| "Again he is reaching toward him, again he will poke him" (same subject) | |||
| mémluyi | -š | lémehi |
| you.eat | -DIFFERENT.SUBJECT | I.will.drink |
| "If you eat, I will drink" (different subjects) | ||
The Seri language
Seri language
Seri is a language isolate spoken by the Seri people by between 716 and 900 people in two villages on the coast of Sonora, Mexico.-Classification:...
of northwestern Mexico also has a switch-reference system which is similar in most ways to those of other languages except for one very salient fact: the relevant argument in a passive clause is not the superficial subject of the passive verb but rather the always unexpressed underlying subject. In clauses with subject raising, it is the raised subject that is relevant.
Non-subject switch-reference
The nominative subject is not always marked by SR. For instance, many clauses, including those with impersonalImpersonal verb
In linguistics, an impersonal verb is a verb that cannot take a true subject, because it does not represent an action, occurrence, or state-of-being of any specific person, place, or thing...
or weather verbs, have no subject at all, yet can bear as well as trigger SR.
Non-canonical switch-reference
In addition, many languages exhibit non-canonical switch-reference, where the co-referents of arguments besides the subject are marked by SR. Here is an example from KiowaKiowa language
Kiowa is a Kiowa–Tanoan language spoken by the Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma in primarily Caddo, Kiowa, and Comanche counties. The Kiowa tribal center is located in Carnegie...
(Watkins 1993):
| Kathryn | gʲà | kwút | gɔ | Esther-àl | gʲà | kwút |
| Kathryn | 'she-it' | write.PF | and.SAME | Esther-too | 'she-it' | write.PF |
| Kathryn wrote a letter and Esther wrote one, too. | ||||||
The form of switch-reference markers
SR markers often carry additional meanings, or at least are fused with connectives that do. For instance, an SR marker might mark DS and sequential events.SR-markers often appear attached to verbs, but are not a verbal category. They often appear attached to sentence-initial particles, sentence-initial recapitulative verbs, adverbial conjunctions ('when', 'because', etc.), or coordinators ('and','but', though it seems never 'or'), relativizers ('which,'that'), or sentence complementizer
Complementizer
In linguistics , a complementizer is a syntactic category roughly equivalent to the term subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar. For example, the word that is generally called a complementizer in English sentences like Mary believes that it is raining...
s ('that'). They can also appear as free morphemes, or as differing agreement paradigms. However, most SR languages are SOV languages, with verbs as well as complementizers and conjunctions coming at the end of clauses. Therefore, SR often appears attached to verbs, a fact that has led to the common though erroneous claim that SR is a verbal category.
One certain typological fact about SR is that SR-markers appear at the 'edges' of clauses. It is found at the edge of either a subordinate clause (referring to the matrix clause), or at the edge of a coordinate clause (referring to the previous clause). It is also very common in clause-chaining languages of New Guinea, where it is found at the edge of medial clauses.
SR is also sensitive to syntactic structure. It can skip a clause that is string-adjacent (spoken one right after another), and refer to a matrix clause. For instance, given the configuration [ A [ B ] [ C ] ], where B and C are subordinate clauses to A, any SR-marking on C refers to A, not B.
Distribution of switch-reference
SR is found in hundreds of languages in North and South America, Australia, New Guinea, and the South Pacific. Typologies exist for North America (Jacobsen 1983), Australia (Austin 1981), and New Guinea (Roberts 1997).SR spreads generally by areal diffusion, accounting for the fact that the morphological marking varies from one language to the next.